Inter 2nd Year

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 13th Lesson Recent Developments in Andhra Pradesh and India Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 13th Lesson Recent Developments in Andhra Pradesh and India

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Describe the Formation of Andhra Pradesh State.
Answer:
The Desire of Formation of Andhra Pradesh is not a new one. Sri C.R. Reddy expressed his feeling of formation of Andhra Pradesh by virtue of their Telugu speaking on the eve of his guest lecture of convocation of Osmania University in 1938 later Proi. Mamidipudi Venkata Rangaiah expressed this view in an article.

1) Role of Communist Party:
The Credit of the development of concept of Visalandhra has goes to communists of Andhra. They got thumping majority in 1952 general elections both in Andhra and Telangana regions the formation of Visalandhra was also included in their election manifesto to they used to promote the feeling among the people by establishment of Andhra State in 1953, October 1st the politics has gone through the regions of Andhra and Telangana towards the formation of Visalandhra.

2) First Visalandhra Mahasabha :
In 1949, November 26 the first Visalandhra mahasabha was held at Vijayawada under the leadership of Sri Ayyadevara Kaleswara Rao.

3) Second Visalandhra Mahasabha:
In 1954, June 13 and 14 the second Visalandhra Mahasabha was held at Hyderabad led by Sri. Sri.

4) Fazal Ali Commission:
In the wake of formation of separate Andhra the Keralites, Kamatakas used to agitate for separate states. The Marathas’had also joined with them N.V Gadgil advised Nehruji, it is inevitable to the formation of linguistic state, unless and otherwise the congress party eould not survive in South India. By following this advice on 22^nd December, 1953 the Indian government has announced the formation of State Reorganization Commission (SRC) under the chairmanship of Fazal Ali, Besides him H.N.,Kunzru and K.M. Phanikkar were other members. The committee had submitted its report to the union government on 30^th September, 1955.

The contmittee in its report observed and examined merits and demerits by forming Visalandhra and it also studied deeply the formation of separate, Telangana and its positive arguments by mentioning positive and Negative views the committee advised it is better to make an agreement like Sri Bagh which was held in the case of formation of separate Andhra State which does not create any obstructions for development of Telangana and will not create any harm to job opportunities and to protect the interests of Telangana people then the Visalandhra can be formed in addition to the above the Telangana Legislators has to approve the resolution with 2/3 majority who were elected in 1952.

5. Gentlemen’s Agreement :
In order to clear the doubts among the people of Telangana that the Visalandhra may obstruct their interests, the gentlemen’s Agreement look place on 20^th February, 1956 at Delhi basing on the recommendations of Fazal Ali Commission. It was attended by Sri Bezawada Gopala Reddy the then Chief Minister of Andhra State, and his Colleagues Sarvasri Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy, Gouthu Lanchanna, Alluri Satyanarayana Raju from Andhra Region.

Sri Burgula Ramakrishna Rao the then Chief Minister of Hyderabad state and his colleagues Savasri K.V. Ranga Reddy, Marri Chenna Reddy, J.V. Narsinga Rao from Telangana Region, They had signed on the Agreement which contains the follows aspects. ‘

1. The administrative expenditure of the state shall be contributed in proportion of both Andhra and Telangana. The surplus of Telangana should be confined for its development up to five years and it may be extended for another five years at the request of Telangana legislators.
2. The educational opportunities which are in Telangana shall be provided for them only more development is to be extended. Technical education and seats in Universities shall be allocated up to 1/3 for Telangana students.
3. The Vacancies arise in Future shall be allocated to both Regions in proportion to their population.
4. 12 years of Residency is must for Andhra people to get job in Telangana.
5. Regional Development council shall be constituted for over all development of Telangana.
6. In Council of ministers there shall be 60% from Andhra and 40% from Telangana respectively there must be one Muslim from Telangana part.
7. If the chief minister is belongs to Andhra Region, the deputy chief minister must be from Telangana Region and vise-versa. At least 2 port folios must be given to Telangana out of Home, Finance, Revenue, Planning, Development, Commerce and Industry.

Decks had been cleared for formation of Visalandhra in the wake of gentle men’s agreement. The state Reorganization Bill was introduced in both houses of parliament on 16^th March, 1956.

On 5^th April, 1956 the bill was approved by the Andhra legislative assembly by the following amendments.

1. The Name of the state should be Andhra Pradesh.
2. The capital and the high court must be set up at Hyderabad.
3. The general elections shall be held for the entire Andhra Pradesh in 1962.
4. The legislative council with 72 members should be setup.

→ On 13 April, 1956 the bill was approved by the Hyderabad state legislative assembly.
→ On 25^th August, 1956 the bill was approved by Rajya Sabha and later by Lok Sabha.
→ On 31^st August, the president of India gave his assent to the bill.
→ On 1^st November, 1956 on the eve of Diwali the first linguistic state of Andhra Pardesh was formed.
→ C.M. Trivedi was the first governor.
→ Neelam Sanjeev Reddy was the first chief minister.

Question 2.
Examine the causes that led to Bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh.
Answer:
The movement for separate Telangana state was revived with the creation of Chattisgarh, Jharkhand and Uttarakhand in 2000. This time, the political movement was spear headed by the Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS). Andhra Pradesh was the first state to be formed on the linguistic basis. But even after co-existence of 57 long years, the sense of same language has failed to keep the people of the state united.

The rationale behind the agitation for Telangana is not merely .’Economic Backwardness’ but the culmination of grievances such as intentional neglect of the region in water sharing, funds allocation, employment opportunities and even cultural discrimination. These claims may or may not pass the test of rationality. But, once a section of people start exhibiting their serious apprehensions and inconveniences to, live with their counterparts in other regions, it is difficult to sustain unity.

Causes that led to Bi-furcation :

1. The congress party entered into an alliance with TRS in 2004 elections.
2. The congress led UPA government promised that the decision on separate Telangana state will be taken at an appropriate time by getting consensus of all the political parties through the presidential address to the parliament during its first session on the eve of formation of 14th Lok Sabha. ,
3. The U.P.A government constituted a cabinet sub-committee headed by Sri Pranab Mukhaijee to have wider consultations with all the political parties regarding credtion of separate Telangana. Sri Raghuvams Prasad Singh (RJD) and Sri Dayanidhi Maran (DMK) were the other two members.
4. The Ruling party showed little interest in creating Telangana state. By the year 2009 when general elections are due, the congress party had gone back on its promise.
5. During 2009 elections the Telugu Desam, CPI and CPM parties entered into electoral alliance with TRS by forming the grand Alliance that they are in favour of separate State of Telangana.
6. In the Wake of Hunger Strike of Sri K. Chandra Sekhar Rao, the TRS supreme and with the intensification of agitation for separate Telangana. Home Minister Chidambaram said in December 2009, that is serious about Telangana.
7. The government of India constituted a committee for consultations on the situation in Andhra Pradesh on 3^rd February 2010. It was headed by Justice B.N. Sri Krishna. It examined two main issues namely, (i) the demand for separate statehood Telangana (ii) keeping the state united in the present form, Andhra Pradesh. The Committee submitted its report on 30 December, 2010 to the Ministry of Home Affairs.

The Sri Krishna Committee solicited suggestions and views from political parties, social organizations and other stakeholders. The Committee’s report contained six options. They are mentioned as follows.

1. Maintaining the status quo.
2. Bifurcation of the state into Seemandhra and Telangana. Each state is to develop its own capital. Hyderabad is to be converted into a Union Territory.
3. Dividing A.P. into two states – one of Rayala Telangana with Hyderabad as its Capital and the second one of the coastal Andhra Pradesh.
4. Dividing Andhra Pradesh into Seemandhra and Telangana with enlarged Hyderabad metropolis’as a separate Union Territory. It will be linked geographically to Guntur district in coastal Andhra via Nalgonda district in the south east and via Mahaboob Nagar district in the south to Kumool district in Rayalaseema.
5. Bifurcation of the State into Telangana and Seemandhra as per existing boundaries with Hyderabad as capital of Telangana and Seemandhra to have new capital.
6. Keeping the State united and providing for creation of statutorily empowered Telangana Regional Council for socio-economic development and political development of Telangana region.
7. Telangana leaders rejected the recommendations of the Committee and insisted on the formation of Telangana state with Hyderabad as its capital, Protests in Telangana continued in the form of strikes, hunger strikes, suicides, giving petitions and roses to public officials and boycotting the public events. .
8. The UPA coordination committee agrees to the division of Andhra Pradesh on July 30, 2013.
9. Andhra Pradesh Reorganization Bill, 2014 was passed by the Parliament in February 2014 amidst pandemonium in the Parliament. The Seemandhra region was in turmoil.
10. The Bill was attested by the President on March 1^st 2014.
11. The New 29^th state of Telangana was created on 2^nd June, 2014 with 119 members of Legislative Assembly and 40 members of Legislative Council, 17 members in the Lok Sabha and 7 members in Rajya Sabha.
12. The Residuary state of Andhra Pradesh would-have 175 MLA’s, 58 MLC’s, 25 MP’s in Lok Sabha and 11 MP’s in Rajya Sabha. There would be a common High Court and the expenditure would be apportioned between the two states. Hyderabad will remain the common capital under the Governor’s supervision for not more than ten years. Later in May 2015 a nfew capital city for Andhra Pradesh was announced with ‘Aitiaravati’. The capital city would stretch to the parts of Guntur and Krishna districts of the new state.

Question 3.
Define Human Right? Describe the structure of National Human Rights Commission of India.
Answer:
Introduction :
People are human so they are entitled to human rights. Human Rights determine standards to states and governments to protect the vulnerable Individuals and groups against oppression.

Definition:

1. Section 2(d) of the protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 defines Human Rights as “Rights relating to life, Liberty, Equality and dignity of the Individual, guaranteed by the constitution or embodied in the International covenants and enforceable by the courts in India”.
2. According to UNO Human Rights are freedom to all irrespective of place, sex, religion, language etc.

As per the U.N. Declaration of human rights, the government of India too steps for its implementation. In 1993, it appointed National Human Rights Commission and also passed Human Rights Act in 1998.

Composition:
National human rights commission is a multi-member body. It consists of four members, headed by the former chief justice of the Supreme Court. There will be a Supreme Court judge (or former Judge). A high court judge (or former high court chief justice) and two other members who actively participated in the human rights activities. The chairman of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, minorities commissions, chairperson of national women commission act as the ex-officio members of the commission. There will be a General Secretary having the status of Secretary general in the commission.

Appointment:
The chairman as well as members of the commission are appointed by the President of India.

Tenure :
The Chairman and members shall hold their office for five years or until the super annuation age of 70, years which ever is earlier.

Functions :
The following are some of the important functions of national human rights commission.

1. The national human rights commission makes enquiry into the cases of violation of human rights by the public authorities.
2. It enquires into the cases of human rights violation as permitted by the judicial organizations.
3. It review the various legislative measures in regard to the implementation of human rights.
4. It makes suggestions for averting terrorist operations affecting human rights.
5. It makes research into the matter of human rights.
6. It takes steps for creating awareness of human rights among the people.
7. It gives encouragement to voluntary organizations in the mutters of preserving human rights.

Question 4.
Explain about the Right to Information Act.
Answer:
The Right to Information act 2005 is an act of the parliament “to provide a setting out the practical regime of right to information of citizens”. The act applies to all states and Union territories of India except to Jammu and Kashmir. According to the act all the citizens have the right to seek information from any quarter which under the control of the public authority. The idea’is tq give transparency, accountability and disclosure in Government administration.

The act specifies that citizens have a right to –

• Request any information.
• Obtain copies of documents.
• Inspect document works and records,
• Takes certified samples of materials of work.

Process :
Under the act all authorities covered must appoint their information officer (PIO). Any person may submit request to the PIO for information in writing. If the request has been made to the PIO the reply is to be given within thirty days of receipt.

If information is not provided within this period it is treated deemed refusal. This is a fee of Rs. 10 filling the request Rs. 2 for page of information Rs. 5 each hour of after the first hour. Persons Below the Poverty Line (BPL) are exempted from the fee payment. However he or she should submit a proof in support of his or her claim for belonging to the section below poverty line.

Exclusions :
IB, RAW, CBI, Directorate of revenue Intelligency, Central Economic Intelligency, Bureau, Narcotics Control Bureau, BFS, CRPF, ITBP, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Special branch, Laksha Dweep Police for that information relating to all allegation of human right violation could be given but only with the approval of Central (or) state information commission.

The following exempt from disclosure section (8) Eight:
→ Information disclosure of which would prejudicially effect the sovereignty and integrity of India.
→ Information which has been expressly forbidden to be published by any court of law or tribunal or disclosure of which may constitute contempt of court. Information the disclosure of which would cause the breach of privilege of parliament (or) state legislature.
→ Information whjch would impact the process of investigation or apprehension of prosecution of offenders.
→ The administrator appointed under Article 239 of the constitution.

The central information commission :
The central information commission consisted of one chief commissioner, number of CIC not exceeding ten. All the commissioners shall be appointed by the president of India. Head quarter is in Delhi.

The state information commission :
The state information commission consisted of one chief commissioner and not more than ten. Information commissioners appointed by the state.

The central information commission or state information commission as the case may be shall while inquiring into any matter have the same powers as or vested in a civil court.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Describe the formation of Andhra State. [Mar. 18, 16]
Answer:
During Vandhemataram movement, the senior congressmen of Andhra Region, Sri Bhoga Raju Pattabhi Seetha Ramaiah, Mutnuri Krishna Rao, Konda Venkatappiah and Tanguturi Prakasam Met at Machilipatnam and discussed about formation of an Integrated Andhra state by uniting the regions of Andhra, Rayalaseema and Telangana. In the Madras State, There are 58% of Telugu areas and 40% of Telugu people were remained backward.

This created the feeling of separate state of Andhra among them strongly. In 1912 the joint session of Godavari, Krishna and Guntur was held at Nidadavole under the chairmanship of Sri Vemavarapu Ramadas and passed a Resolution for formation of separate Andhra State.

1) The First Andhra Mahasabha, Bapatla 1913:
In 1913 at Bapatla of Guntur district, the First Andhra Mahasabha was held which was presided by Sri B.N.Sarma. It was attended by 800 delegates and 2000 Audience.

2) The Second Andhra-Mahasabha, Vijayawada 1914 :
On 11^th April of 1914 the second Andhra Mahasabha was held at Vijayawada which was presided by Sri Nyapathi Subba Rao, Sri Ayyadevara Kaleswara Rao of Vijayawada was its Convener. It was attended by 1600 delegates.

3) The Third Andhra Mahasabha, Visakhapatnam 1915 :
In 1915, May the third Andhra Mahasabha was held at Visakhapatnam under the chairmanship of Sri Panagallu Raja Rama Rayanim. It pass two resolutions.

1. Formation of separate Andhra State, Inevitable
2. Teaching in mother tongue up to secondary school level

The Nagpur congress session in 1920 has declared officially by accepting the doctrine of linguistic states. It has Recoginsed 21 languages on that basis the separate Pradesh congress was launched. Article 52 of Indian council Act of 1919 which was made on the Report of Montague – Chelmsford stated that the government may accept the proposal of separate’Andhra State if such resolution is passed by majority in the state legislature.

In 1926, the Andhra university was established with a view to provide higher education to Andhra people due to sincere efforts by the then education minister, Sri Anem Parasuram Pathro.

In 1932, under the chairmanship of Sri Kadapa Kotireddy, The separate Andhra Mahasabha was held at Madras. Sri Kasinadhuni Nageswara Rao Pantulu and Prominent leaders of Andhra and Rayalaseema were participated.

4) Sri Bagh Pact :
On 14^th November, 1937 at Madras in the residence of Sri Kasinadhuni Nageswara Rao panthulu namely “Sri Bagh” the meeting of leaders of Andhra and Rayalaseema was held.

Leaders from Andhra regio,n were Dr. Bhoga Raju, Pattabhi Seetha Ramaiah, Konda Venkatappaiah, Mahboob Alibegh, Desi Raju Hanumantha Rao, Mullapudi Pallam Raju and Kasinadhuni Nageswara Rao Pantulu.

Leaders from Rayalaseema were Sri Kadapa Kotireddy, Seetha Rami Reddy, Subbu Rami Reddy, T.N.Rama Krishna Reddy, Pappuri Ramachari and Varadachari.

On 30^th march, 1938 Konda Venkatappaiah introduced a Resolution in Madras Assembly and it was seconded by Kadapa Koti Reddy. The then chief minister addressed the house on resolution. Later it was passed by the house unanimously.

In 1938 The Andhra Mahasabha was held which was presided by Dr. Sarvepalli Radha Krishna and discussed about capital.

The First Andhra Mahasabha, Bapatla 1913
The Second Andhra Mahasabha, Vijayawada 1914
The Third Andhra Mahasabha, Visakhapatnam, 1915
Sri Bagh Pact
Events that led to the formation of Andhra State.
J.VR Report
Hunger Strike of Swami Seetharam
Hunger Strike fast un to death of Potti Sreeramulu
Waanchu Committee 1953

5) J.VR Report:
The Jaipur congress session appointed three men committee which consists of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhaipatel and Pattabhi Seetha Ramaiah, Popularly Known as JVP Committee to re consider the Separate state demand. The committee submitted report in 1949 April Stating that the separate state can be formed upon a condition that the Andhra people has to set a side the desire of Madras city.

6) Hunger Strike of Swami Seetha Ram :
With a view to get easy and speedy formation of separate Andhra State by over coming of all hurdles Sri Swami Seetha Ram (Sri Gollapudi Seetha Ram Sasthri) Started hunger strike on 15^th August, 1952 at Guntur Town hall it was continued for 36 days.

7) Hunger Strike Fast un to death of Potti Sreeramulu:
For the Separate state hood of Andhra Potti Sreeramulu has started fast un to death on 19^th October, 1952 at the Residence of Maharshi Bulusu Sambamurthy and it was later named as “Yagnasala”.

Under these circumstances on 9th December 1952 the union government announced that the government would consider the issue of Separate Andhra state if the Andhra people will agree for separate Andhra apart from Madras By that time Fast un to death of Potti Sreeramulu has gone to 52^nd day on 15th December 1952 at 11.39 p.m. Potti Sreeramulu Possess away.

8) Waanchu Committee 1953 :
In Jan, 1953 the Government of India has appointed Justice Waanchu, the chief Justice of Rajasthan High Court to study the formation of separate Andhra state soon after the receipt of Waanchu report prime minister Nehru announced that the Andhra state will be formed on 18^th October, 1953 and furtherly he stated it is the responsibility of Andhra Legislators to decide the capital, which has to be set up in Andhra region except Madras.

Formation of Andhra State:
The government of India appointed C.M.Trivedi as special officer to look into the New state formation activities. The separate state of Andhra was officially formed with “Kumool’ as its capital on 18^th October, 1953 as announced earlier.

New Andhra State Consists of 11 Andhra districts Viz, Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, Nellore, Chittoor, Kadapa, Anantapur and Kurnool.

High court was set up at Guntur on 4^th July, 1954 Justice Koka Subba Rao was the first chief justice C.M.Trivedi was the First Governor of Andhra state.

“Tanguturi Prakasam Panthulu” was the first thief minister. Prime Minister Jawaharlala Nehru launched the Andhra State on 1^st October, 1953. The people through out the state had Celebrated it as great event and Festival.

Question 2.
Examine the Factors that led to Jai Andhra Movement
Answer:
Jai Andhra Movement (1972) was a sequal to the Telangana agitation (1969) which demanded only “Mulkis” should be appointed to the posts in Telangana including Hyderabad city. The ‘Mulki’ issue had a long history behind it. As early as in 1969, the Nizam State of Hyderabad issued a farman laying down that only ‘Mulkis’ are eligible for public appointments in the state. ‘Mulki’ was defined as one who was bom in the State of Hyderabad or resided there continuously for fifteen years and had given an affidavit that he or she has abandoned the idea of returning to his or her native place.

Even after the formation of Andhra Pradesh, the Mulki rules continued to be in force in the Telangana region. As these rules stood in the way of the people of Andhra region to compete for the posts, their validity was challenged in the High Court. The High Court struck down Mulki rules. On an appeal by the state government, the Supreme Court declared that the Mulki rules were valid and were in force. The judgement created a great political crisis in the state. The people of Andhra region felt that they were reduced to the status of second class citizens in their own state capital. They have an agitation demanding separation of Andhra region from Andhra Pradesh.

As the agitation continued, President Rule was imposed in the state (1973) and a political settlement was arrived at with the initiative from the Central Government. A ‘Six Point formula’ was agreed upon by the leaders of two regions to prevent any recurrence of such agitations in future. It included, among others the following two points.

1. The abolition of Mulki rules and the Telangana Regional Committee.
2. The establishment of a Central University at Hyderabad to augment educational facilities.

Question 3.
What are the Initiative under taken by NHRC?
Answer:
The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) is a statutory body. It was established on October 12^th, 1993. The NHRC is the guardian of Human Rights in the country, i.e., the Rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the Individuals guaranteed by the constitution.

Initiatives under taken by NHRC :

1. The enquire into any violation of human rights.
2. To intervene in any proceeding involving allegation of violation of human rights pending before a court.
3. To visit jails and detention places to study the living conditions of inmates and make recommendations thereon.
4. To review the constitutional and other legal safeguards for the protection of human rights and recommended measures for their effective implementation.
5. To review the factors including acts of terrorism that inhibits the enjoyment of human rights and recommend remedial measures.
6. To study treatises and other international instruments on human rights and make recommendations for their effective implementation.
7. To undertake and promote research in the field of human rights.
8. To spread human rights literature among the people and promote awareness of the safeguards available for the protection of human rights.
9. To encourage the efforts of NGO’s working in the field of human rights.
10. To recommend to the concerned authorities to make payment of compensation or damage to the victims. .

Question 4.
Why are Human Rights commissions necessary at the National and State Level?
Answer:
People are human so they are entitled to Human Rights. Human rights determine standards to states and governments to protect the vulnerable individuals and groups against oppression.

The Human Rights Protection Act, 1993 facilitates not only the creation of National Human Rights Commission but also a State Human Rights Commission at the state level. At present 23 states in India have constituted the State Human Rights Commission and Andhra Pradesh is one among them. The main objective of State Human Rights Commission is to inquire into violation of human rights only in respect of subjects mentioned in the State List and concurrent List of the 7th schedule of Constitution.

The National Human Rights Commission is the guardian of human Rights in the country i.e. the rights relating to life, liberty equality, and dignity of the individuals guaranteed by the constitution.

Whereas the State Human Rights Commission is the guardian of human rights in the state.

Question 5.
What are the Powers and Functions of Information Commissions? [Mar. 17]
Answer:
The following are the powers and functions of information commissions both at central and state levels.

1. The Central Information Commission/State Information Commission (CIC/SCIC) has a duty to receive complaints from any person-

• Who was not been able to submit an information request because a PIO has not been appointed?
• Who has been refused information that was requested?
• Who has received no response to his/her information request within the specified timelimits;
• Who thinks the fees charged are unreasonable;
• Who thinks the information given is incomplete or false or misleading; and
• Any other matter relating to obtaining information under this law.

2. Power to order inquiry if there are reasonable grounds.
3. The Central Information Commission / State Information Commissions (CIC/SCIC) will have powers of Civil Court such as –

• Summoning and enforcing attendance of persons, compelling them to give oral or written evidence on oath and to produce documents or things.
• Requiring the discovery and inspecition of documents.
• Receiving evidence on affidavit.
• Requisitioning public records or copies from any court or office.
• Issuing summons for examination of witnesses or documents.
• Any other matter which may be prescribed.

4. All records covered by this law (including those covered by exemptions) must be given to Central Information Commission / State Information Commission (C.IC / SCIC) during inquiry for examination.

5. Power to secure compliance of its decisions from the Public Authority includes

• Providing access to information in a particular form.
• Directing the public authority to appoint a PIO / APIO where none exists.
• Publishing information or categories of information.
• Making necessary changes to the practices relating to management, maintenance and destruction of records.
• Enhancing training provision for officials on RTI.
• Seeking an annual report from the public authority on compliance with this law.
• Require it to compensate for any loss or other detriment suffered by the applicant.
• Impose penalties under this law.

Question 6.
How is the Central Information Commission Constituted?
Answer:
The Central Information Commission (CIQ is constituted by the central government through a Gazette Notification.

Composition:
The Central Information Commission consists of one Chief Information Commissioner (CIC) and 10 other information Commissioners (IQ.

The Commission shall have its head quarters in Delhi. Other offices may be established in other parts of the country.

Appointment:
The Chief Information Commissioner and Information Commissioners will be appointed by the president of India, basing on the recommendations of the appointment committee headed by the Prime Minister.

Eligibility (or) Qualifications :
The persons who wish to be appointed as chief information commissioner and information commissioner must possess the following

Qualifications:

• He must be person of eminence in public life with wide knowledge and experience in law, science and Technology, Social service management, Journalism, Mass media or Administration and governance.
• He shall not be a member of either union or State Legislature
• He shall not hold any other office of profit
• He shall not be connected with any political party
• He shall not carrying on any business or pursuing any profession.

Tenure :
The Chief Information Commissioner and Information Commissioners shall remain in office for a period of 5 years or till they attains the age of 65 years, which ever is earlier.

Salary :
The salary of CIC and i.e will be the same as that of the chief Election Commissioner and the Election Commissioner.

The Commission will exercise its powers without being subjected to directions by any other authority.

Question 7.
What is the Time Limit to get the Information?
Answer:
Any citizen of the country can seek information from any agency subject to certain limitations. The applicant should submit an application to the Public Information Officer (PIO) or Assistant PIO or who is the officer to give information to a person, who seeks information under this Act, accompanied by a nominal fee (usually Rs. 10/-) in the form of demand draft / banker cheque / Indian Postal Order / Court Fee stamp. Persons below the poverty line (BPL) are exempted from the fee payment. However he / she should submit a proof in support of his or her claim for belonging to the section below poverty line.

Information is to be provided by the PIO / asst. PIO within 30 days if life and liberty is involved, the information should be furnished within 48 hours where third party is involved it is to be provided within 40 days. If the information is not forthcoming within the stipulated period, first appeal can be made to the head of the department. After a reasonable gap, the second appeal can be made to Information Commission. For refusing to furnish information or for unreasonable delay or for providing false information, a penalty of Rs. 250/- a day can be levied up to a maximum of Rs. 25000/-, and the employee can be prosecuted.

Question 8.
What are the different options suggested by Sri Krishna Committee regarding the status of Andhra Pradesh State? [Mar- 18, 16]
Answer:
The government of India constituted a Committee for consultations on the situation in Andhra Pradesh on 3^rd February, 2010 headed by Justice B.N.Sfi Krishna. It Examined two main issues namely :

• The demand for separate statehood of Telangana.
• Keeping the state united in the present form, Andhra Pradesh.

The Committee submitted its report on 30 December, 2010 to the union home ministry.
The committee’s report contained the following six options.

1. Maintaining the status quo.
2. Bifurcation of the state into Seemandhra and Telangana. Each state is to develop its own capital. Hyderabad is to be converted into a union Territory.
3. Dividing A.P into two states – one of Rayala Telangana with Hyderabad as its capital and the second one of the coastal Andhra Pradesh.
4. Dividing Andhra Pradesh into Seemandhra and Telangana with Hyderabad metropolis as a separate union Territory. It will be linked geographically to guntur district in coastal Andhra via Nalgonda district in the south East and via Mahaboob Nagar district in the South to Kumool district in Rayalaseema.
5. Bifurcation of the state into Telangana and Seemandhra as per existing boundaries with Hyderabad as capital of Telangana and Seemandhra to have new capital.
6. Keeping the state united and providing for creation of statutorily empowered Telangana Regional council for Socio-economic development and political development of Telangana Region.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Gentlemen Agreement.
Answer:
In order to clear the doubts among the people, of Telangana that the Visalandhra may obstruct their interest, the gentlemen’s agreement took place on 20^th February, 1956 at Delhi basing on the recommendations of Fazal Ali Commission. It was attended by Sri Bezawada Gopala Reddy the then Chief Minister of Andhra State, and his colleagues Sarvasi Neelam, Sanjeeva Reddy, Gouthu Lanchanna, Alluri Satyanarayana Raju from Andhra region.

Sri Burgula Ramakrishna Rao the then Chief Minister of Hyderabad State and his colleagues Savaging K.VRanga Reddy Marri Chenna Reddy, J.V.Narsinga Rao from Telangana Region. They had signed on the Agreement.

Question 2.
JVP Committee. [Mar. 18, 16]
Answer:
The Jaipur Congress session appointed three men committee which consist of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhaipatel and Pattabhi Seetha Ramaiah popularly known as JVP Committee to reconsider the separate state demand. The committee submitted report in 1949 April stating that the separate state can be formed upon a condition that the Andhra people has to set a side the desire of Madras city.

Question 3.
Sri Bagh Pact.
Answer:
When the Andhra movement was in full swing the leaders of Rayalseema and Andhra met at the residence of Sri Kasinadhuni Nageswara Rao Panttulu on 14^th November, 1937 popularly known as “Sree Bagh” the following leaders were participated in the meeting.

The meeting was held in a peaceful atmosphere. The following were the chief provisions of the pact.

1. The centres of Andhra universities will be established one at waltair and another , at Rayalaseema.
2. Giving importance to the development of Rayalaseema.
3. Equal representation in the assembly for all the districts.
4. To set up either new capital or high court in Rayalaseema.

Question 4.
Fazal Ali Commission.
Answer:
On 22^nd December 1953 the Indian government has announced the formation of States Re-organization Commission (SRC) under the chairmanship of Fazal Ali, besides him H.N Kunzty and K.M Phanikkar were other members. The committee had submitted its report to the union government on 30^th September 1955.

Question 5.
Criteria to be followed to be appointed as the chairperson of NHRC. [Mar. 17]
Answer:
The Chairperson of the NHRC is appointed by the president of India, on the recommendations of a six (6) member committee consisting of further a sitting judge of the supreme court or a sitting chief justice of High Court can be appointed only after consultation with the chief justice of India. This high level and politically balanced committee, together with the statuatory requirements relating to the qualifications of the chairperson.

Question 6.
Procedure to be considered for the appointment of chairperson and members of the state HRC.
Answer:
The Chairman and members of state HRC are appointed by. the concerned state governor on the recommendations of a committee consisting of the chief minister as its head, the speaker of the legislative assembly. In the case of a state having legislative council, the chairman of the council and the leader of the opposition in the council would also be the members of the Committee. The sitting judge of a High Court or a sitting District judge can be appointed as members only after consulation with the chief justice of the high court of the concerned state.

Question 7.
Human Rights Commission as a civil court.
Answer:
The Human Rights Commission has the powers of a civil court under the code of civil procedure, 1908 in respect of-summoning and enforcning the attendance of witness; discovery and production of any document; receiving evidence on affidavits, requisitioning any public record or copy there of from any court or office ; issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses or documents and request of public record as listed under section 13 of the Act.

It has authority to grant interim relief.
It can recommend payment of compensation for the damages.

Question 8.
The Jurisdiction of NHRC on Armed forces.
Answer:
The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) has limited role, powers, and Jurisdiction with respect to the violation of Human Rights by the Armed force. It has no power to punish the violation of Human Rights. The Commission’s Role is an advisory, Recommendatory. The government considers the cases forwarded by it.

Question 9.
Public Information Officer (PIO).
Answer:
Under the Right to Information Act, 2005 all authorities covered must appoint their information officer. Such an officer is called as Public Information Officer (PIO). In All Administrative Units PIO’s are designated to furnish information to any citizen. Any person may submit request to the PIO for information in writing.

Question 10.
What is Information?
Answer:
Information is any material in any form. It includes Records, documents, memos, e-mails, opinions, advice, press releases, circulars, orders, log books, contracts, reports, papers, samples, models and data material in any electronic form.

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 12th Lesson Political Parties Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 12th Lesson Political Parties

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write an essay on the major National Political Parties in India.
Answer:
India is the largest democratic country in the world. Political parties in India are classified into two types.

1. All India Parties (or) National Parties and
2. Regional Parties

1. National Parties :
A political party that participates in four or more states in Lok Sabha elections and secures 6% of valid polled votes plus 4 Lok Sabha- seats can be recognized as National Party by the Election Commission of India.

At present there are 6 major National parties in India they are :

1. Indian National Congress (INC)
2. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
3. Communist Party of India (CPI)
4. Communist Party of India Marxist (CPM)
5. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) .
6. Nationalist Congress Party (NCP)

1. Indian National Congress (INC):
Indian National Congress is the oldest All India Political Party in our country. It was founded by A.O. Hume, a British Civil Servant on 28^th December 1885. Womesh Chandra Banerjee was its first President. This party has played a prominent role in the Indian National movement agairist the Britishers and ultimately secured Independence. After Independence, the Congress kept on dominating the Indian Political science. It became the ruling party at the union and in majority of the Indian States upto March 1977.

Again it came to power during 1980-89 and 1991-1996. Between 1996 – 2004 it acted as a recognised opposition party at the centre. In 2004, it came to power at the centre as a major partner in United Progressive Alliance (UPA). It was the first congress led coalition at the centre. Again in 2009 general elections the congress led UPA, Secured Majority and formed government at centre with its allies.

2. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP):
Bharatiya Janata Party is one of the All India Parties in India. It was founded in February 1980. It has been playing an active role in Indian Politics. It remained in power at the centre during 1998 – 2004. The party has remained as a major partner in the NDA government at the centre in the 13th Lok Sabha. The party remained as the main opposition party in the 14th and 15m Lok Sabha. Now it is in power at the centre under the leadership Sri Narendra Modi’, the Prime Minister of BJP led NDA government since 2014, May.

3. Communist Party of India (CPI) :
Revolutionary leaders and great intellectuals like M.N. Roy were very much fascinated by the Great October Revolution in Russia. Accordingly, the Communist P«arty of India was established on Dec. 26, 1925. Its main aims were to unify the workers, to fight against the colonial rule, to bring about a revolution through class war etc.

The party’s support was more concentrated in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, West Bengal, Bihar and Kerala.

4. Communist Party of India Marxist (CPI(M)) :
The split in the Communist Party of India in 1964 at the Vijayawada session led to the birth CPI Marxist party. The extremists headed by Puchallapalli Sundarayya, Nambudripad, Jyoti Basu etc., formed the Marxist party. In fact there is not much difference in the ideology between the two parties. They differ only in the means. Of the CPI has moderate and rightist nature CPI (M) has extremist and leftest in nature. If the CPI is pro-Russia and CPI (M) is pro-China. The CPI(M) has a strong presence in the states of Kerala, West Bengal and Tripura.

5. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) :
Bahujan Samaj Party is a National Party in our country. It was founded by Kanshi Ram in 1984. The Bahujan Samaj Party – a party dominated by Dalits is the outcome of the merger of employees federation and Dalit Shoshit Samaj Samiti. Kanshi Ram was the torch bearer of this party and Mayawati its beacon light. Mayawati has been described as the guiding angel of the BSP and in fact its savior. The Scheduled Castes, Tribes, educationally and socially downtrodden classes, employees and workers of these classes are the members of this party. After the death of its mentor Kanshi Ram, Mayawati has become the savior of the party in all respects. The BSP has considerable hold in the U.P.

6. Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) :
The Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) is a Centre to Centre left political party primarily based in the states of Maharastra, Kerala and Meghalaya. NCP was formed on 25 May 1999, by Sharad Pawar, P.A. Sangma and Tariq Anwar after they were expelled from the Indian National Congress (INC) on 20^th May 1999, for disputing the right of Italian – bom Sonia Gandhi to lead the party. Sharad Pawar is its president. It was an ally of congress led UPA government during 2004 to 2014.

Question 2.
Explain the various types of Parties and estimate the role of Regional Parties in India.
Answer:
There are four types of Political Parties in the modem democratic states. They are:

1. Reactionary Parties
2. Conservative Parties
3. Liberal Parties, and
4. Radical Parties

The Reactionary Parties are those which are clinging to the old socio-economic and political institutions. The Conservatives believe in the status quo. The Liberal Parties aim at reforming the existing institutions. The Radical Parties aim at establishing a new order by overthrowing the existing institutions. Parties are also again classified on the basis of ideologies. The political scientists have placed the radical parties on the left, the liberal parties in the Centre and the reactionary and conservative parties on the right. In other words, they are described as the leftist parties’, ‘centrist parties’ and ‘rightist parties’.

After India became independent many political parties came into existence. Among these are some national parties, while some are regional parties D.M.K. in Tamil Nadu, Telugu Desam in A.P., National Conference in Jammu and Kashmir, Kranti Ranga in Karnataka and Assam Gana-Parishad in Assam have come into existence and have flourished as regional parties.

Reasons for the rise of regional parties :
Regional parties have been playing a vital role in the Indian politics. These regional parties have come into existence due to the causes mentioned here under.

Causes for the promotion of regional parties :

1) Regional parties based on regional issues :
India is a vast country with a great diversity. The Governments that came to power after Independence have not attempted to eliminate the economic imbalances and the differences between the different regions. Regional parties have come into existing basing on a problem in a certain region. In Tamil- Nadu at first D.K. and later D.M.K, have come into existence basing on the issues of preservation of Tamil culture, language issue and opposition to the imposition of Hindi.

In Punjab, Akali Dal was set up for the formation of a Punjabi Suba to safeguard the special status of Kashmir, National Conference was founded. Due to excessive intervention of the centre in Andhra Politics and the self-respect of Andhra Telugu Desam party come into existence and captured power in 1983. As regional parties have given prominence to the solution of the local issues, they have been reaping the sympathy of the people. So within a short time regional parties have flourished. ’

2) Failure of the Congress in solving regional issues :
The regional parties have flourished due to the failure of the Congress in solving regional issues. The Congress party has not taken regional disparities into account. It has not also tried to solve them in time and in a faetful way. D.M.K in Tamil Nadu became powerful on account of the language problem and the imposition of Hindi to which Tamilians are opposed. On account of the Centre’s frequent intervention in A.P Politics and disregard in selling up Central Government Industries Telugu Desam became powerful. In all the regions where regional parties have been formed, the failure of the Congress in solving regional issues is clearly seen.

3) Economic disparities between the states :
The Central Government has not implemented schemes to remove the economic disparties between the regions of the country and to ensure economic well being of all the regions. As economic disparties between the different states grew, the protests and agitations gave rise to the birth of the regional parties. With the vast economic resources at it’s disposal the centre did not attempt to remove the economic disparties. Economic inequalities are the main causes behind political agitations or movements. The frustration at the different provincial level gave rise to the rise and development of regional parties.

4) Individuality of regional leaders and their influence :
The individuality and influence of the regional leaders can be said to be one of the factors for the rise of regional parties. May parties have been founded only by leaders who have individuality and influence. These have been able to secure popularity.
Ex : Sri M.G. Ramachandran has founded the A.I.A.D.M.K. and Sri N.T. Rama Rao founded the Telugu Desam party. The strength behind these regional parties is derived from one individual. So, the party workers in a disciplined manner exhibit their allegiance to their leader; By this factor only regional parties have been thriving.

5) Electoral agreements or adjustments :
Where the regional parties are strong the national parties for their existence have been making electoral alliances with the regional parties. After the elections depending on the results these national parties have been joining the ministry or lending support from outside. So.these regional parties have been flourishing.

These factors have been responsible for the growth of regional parties in India.

Question 3.
Write an essay on “One Party Dominance” in India.
Answer:
Indian National Congress is the oldest All India Political Party in our country. It was founded by A.O. Hume, a British Civil Servant on 28^th December 1885. Womesh Chandra Baneijee civil was its first president. This party has played a prominent role in the Indian National movement against the Britishers and ultimately secured independence. After independence, the Congress kept on dominating the Indian Political Science. It became the ruling party at the union and in majority of the Indian States. The Role of the Congress party was so great that India was often described as a single dominant Party System.,

Support Base :
During the freedom struggle, the Indian National Congress enjoyed the support of all sections of society, particularly the middle class and the new intellectual Elite. After independence it enjoyed a remarkable popular support among the masses. The congress has always tired to identify itself with the poor of India. Garibi Hatao has been its popular slogan.

During 1947 – 67 the congress ruled the union and almost all the states of the union. In 1967 it suffered a set back when in several states non-congress parties came to power. Its leaders Jawaharlal Nehru, Lai Bahadur Sastri and Indira Gandhi have acted as the Prime Ministers in succession from 1947 to 1977. In 1977 elections the Congress lost its power because of misrule and authoritarian rule during the emergency from 1975 to 1977. In 1980 and 1984 it came back to power under the leadership of Mrs. Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi. In 1991 elections congress formed government under the prime ministership of P.V. Narasimha Rao, after the assasination of Rajiv Gandhi.

The destruction of the controvercial Babri Masjid during Rao’s rule proved to be a great curse to the party. The economic reforms initiated in this period were not openly acknowledged. In 1996 election the party failed to win. In 14^th and 15^th Lok Sabha elections Under the leadership of Mrs. Sonia Gandhi the congress led UPA, won the majority and formed government at the centre under the Prime Minister of Dr. Manmohan Singh. In 15^th Lok Sabha election the UPA contested with the Slogan “Jai ho”

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is Political Party? Explain its characteristics and functions. [Mar. 16]
Answer:
Political Parties are the life blood of democracy. Political parties mould public opinion and create an order out of the choos of individual opinion. In general sense, political party is an organized group of citizens having the purpose of controlling the government through shared interest, by replacing some of its members in public office.

Political parties are defined by various political scientists in different ways. Some of them are given below :
1) Gilchrist:
“Political party as an organized group of citizens who profess to share the same political views and who acting as a political unit try to control the Government”.

2) Leacock :
“A political party is a more or less organized group of citizens who act together as a political unit”.
Characteristic of Political Parties : The following are the important characteristics of political parties. .

1. A party should consist of a group of persons of common interest and shared values.
2. A party should have its own ideology and programme.
3. It should capture power only by constitutional means through elections.
4. It should endeavour to promote the national interest and national welfare.

Functions of Political Parties: The following are the main functions of political parties.
1) They articulate and aggregate social interests of people :
Parties express public expectations and demands of social groups to the political system. Parties put forward different policies and programmes for the welfare of people. These political parties are articulate and aggregate the people’s demands and channelize into political system for policies.

2) Political recruitment :
Political parties perform the recruitment function in the political system. Parties recruit leaders, train them and then make them ministers to run the government in the way they want By this recruiting function, they provide leadership to the country.

3) Means of public opinion :
They raise and highlight the people’s problems and issues. Political parties may agitate and launch movements for the solution the problems faced by people. Political parties demand the government for welfare policies their- programmes will reflect the opinion of the people.

4) They promote political Socialization and participation of citizens:
Political parties create a link between citizens and the political system ; they enable political participation of individuals and groups with the prospect of success. They educate the citizens and prepare them for their adult roles are us citizens and voters.

5) Making laws :
When parties come to power, they make laws for the country. Irrespective of their personal options. Opposition parties also participate in the discussion and debates and suggest the changes in the policies and programmes of the government.

6) Role of opposition :
Parties that lose in elections play the role Of opposition to the parties in power by criticizing the government for its failures or wrong policies. They can evaluate the performance of the ruling party and inform to the public about the merits and demerits of the policies and acts made by it.

7) Access to government machinery and welfare Schemes :
For an ordinary citizen, it is easy to approach a local party leader than a government officer. That is why they feel close to parties ever when they do not fully trust them. Parties have to be responsive to people’s needs and demands.

8) They contribute legitimacy to the political system:
In establishing the connection between citizens social groups and the political system, the parties contribute in anchoring the political order in the consciousness of the citizens and in social forces.

Question 2.
What do you know about Party System? Give a note on types of Party System.
Answer:
Party System :
Party System is a modem phenomenon which has less than 200 years of age. Parties and party system emerged in Europe, North America and Japan around the third decade of the 19^th century.

The party system refers to complex social and political processes individual leaders, societal associations, political groups and organizations and their interaction and inter-relationships. These interaction patterns are governed by constitutions, statues, rules regulations and institutions.

Rajini Kothari has argued in his book “Politics in India” that the party system evolved from an identifiable political centre. This political centre, curved during the nationalist movement, comprised of the political elite sharing common socio – economic background i.e., educated, urban, upper-caste people belonging mainly to middle and upper classes.

Types of party system:
There are different types of party system which are discussed below. They are classified into a single party system, Bi-party system and Multiparty system.

Single party system :
In a single party system only one political party is in existence. The other political parties are not allowed to function. It is possible that the dissension and grouping may exist with in the same political party viz.., Nazi Party in Germany Fascist Party in Italy, Communist Party in China and in former USSR.

Bi-party System :
Under Bi-party system, two major political parties are in working in a political system, one forms the government and the other functions as opposition, political power in such cases alternate between the two major political parties, viz., the labour and the conservative parties in U.K. or Republican and Democratic parties in U.S.A.

Multi Party System:
In multi party system there are more than two parties operating in a political system. But in practice they are aligned with either the ruling party or the opposition party. This type of party system is in existence in India, France, Sweden and Norway etc.

Question 3.
Write briefly the characteristics of Indian party system.
Answer:
Political parties are essential for the success of Democracy. They acts as agencies of public opinion and link between the government and the people. Modem democracy is unthinkable in the absence of political parties.

Characteristics (or) Features of India party system: The Indian party system has the following characteristics (or) features.

1. Multi – Party System:
The continental size of the country, the diversified character of Indian Society, the adoption of universal adult franchise, the peculiar type of political process and other factors have given rise to a large number of political parties. In fact, India has the largest number of political parties in the world. At present there are 6 National parties, 64 State Parties and 1737 registered – unrecognized parties in the country. Further, India has all categories of parties – leftist parties, centrist parties, rightist parties, communal parties, non-communal parties and so on. Consequently, the hung Parliament, hung Assemblies and coalition governments have become a common phenomena in Indian. Political System.

2. One Party Dominance System :
In spite of the multi-party system, the political scence in India was dominated for a long period by the Congress party. Hence, Rajani Kothari, an eminent political scientist, preferred to call the Indian Party System as ‘one party dominance system’ or the ‘Congress System’.

3. Lack of Clear Ideology :
Except the BJP, CPI and CPM, all other parties do not have a clear-out ideology. They are ideologically close to the each, other. They have close resemblance in their policies and programmes. Almost every party advocates democracy, secularism, socialism and Gandhism. More than this, every party has only one consideration i.e., power capture.

4. Personality Cult:
Quite often the parties are organized around an eminent leader who becomes more important than the party and its ideology. Parties are known by their leaders rather than by their manifesto. It is a fact that the popularity of the Congress was mainly due to the leadership erf Nehru, Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi. Similarly, the AIADMK in Tamil Nadu and TDP in Andhra Pradesh got identified with M.G. Ramachandran and N.T. Rama Rao respectively. In Tamil Nadu, after M.G. Ramachandran, Jayalalitha became the icon of the party for this culture. Hence, it is said that “there are political personalities rather than political parties in India”.

5. Traditional Factors :
A large number of parties in India are formed on the basis of religion, caste, language, culture, race and so on. For example Shiv Sena, Muslim League, Hindu Maha Sabha, Akali Dal, Bahujan Samajwadi Party, Gorkha League etc., work for the promotion of communal and sectional interests and thereby undermine the general public interest.

6. Emergence of Regional Parties :
Another significant feature of the Indian Party System is the emergence of a large number of regional parties and their growing role. They have become the ruling parties in various states like BJD in Orissa, DMK and AIADMK in Tamil Nadu, Akali Dal in Punjab, AGP in Assom, National Conference in J & K, JD(U) in Bihar and so on.

These regional parties have come to play a significant role in the national politics due to coalition governments at the Centre. In 1984 elections, the TDP emerged as the largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha and played a decisive role in national politics. In one context, i.e., during the NDA Government when Vajpayee was the Prime Minister at the Centre, Nara Chandra Babu Naidu played a ‘King Maker’ role at the centre.

7. Factions and Defections:
Factionalism, defections, splits, mergers, fragmentation, polarization and so etc., have been important aspects of the functioning of political parties Dais, two Communist parties, two Congresses and so on.

8. Lack of Effective opposition :
In the last 63 years, an effective strong, organized and a viable national opposition could never emerge except in flashes. The opposition parties have no unity and very offen adopt mutually conflicting positions with respect to the ruling party.

Question 4.
Write a note on Congress Party In India.
Answer:
Indian National Congress is the oldest All India Political Party in our country. It was founded by A.O. Hume, a British Civil Servant on 28^th December 1885. Womesh Chandra Baneijee was its first president. This party has played a prominent role in the Indian National movement against the Britishers and ultimately secured Independence. After Independence, the congress kept on dominating the Indian political scence. It became the ruling party at the union and in majority of the Indian states up to March 1977.

• Jawaharlal Nehru was the Prime Minister from 1946 to 1964.
• Lai Bahadur Shastri was the Prime Minister from 1964 to 1966.
• Smt. Indira Gandhi was the prime minister from 1966 to 1977.
• Again it came to power during 1980 to 1989, again Smt. Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister from 1980 to 1984 October, 31st, the day on which she was assassinated.
• Rajeev Gandhi was the Prime Minister from 1984 to 1989.
• It became the Ruling party during 1991 to 1996 under the stewardship of Sri. P. V Narasimha Rao.
• Between 1996 to 2004 it acted as a recognized opposition party at the centre.
• In 2004 it came to power at the centre as a major partner in united progressive Alliance (UPA).
• Again in 2009 general elections the Congress led UPA secured majority and formed government at centre with its allies.
• Dr. Manmohan Singh was the Prime Minister from 2004 to 2014.

Policies:
The Indian National Congress, during the pre-independence era has worked with a single point programme, called Swaraj. After achieving independence it was committed to implementation of the policies like secularism, socialism, international peace, equality and Justice. It has the following policies :

1. The party aims to eradicate poverty, unemployment, economic inequalities, discrimination, exploitation etc.
2. It strives to achieve full employment, optimum production, promotion of cottage and small scale industries, provatization, globalization and liberalization programmes in the industrial sector.
3. It stafids for world peace and security and has belief in the policy of noninterference, non-alignment, friendly relations with all countries and to end racial apartheid in international sphere.
4. It dedicates itself to the implementation of land reforms rescuing farmers in times of natural calamities, provision of credit at lower rates of interest, marketing and warehousing facilities in agricultural sector.
5. It abides by the values of democracy and decentralisation of authority in political field.

Party organization :
Its constitutions was first formulated at Nagpur session (1920). Now, let us know something about its organization.
1. All India Congress Committee (AICC) :
It consists of about 425 members. It meets annually. It decides all the policies of the party. It occupies the highest place in the organization.

2. Congress working committee (CWC) :
It consists of 21 members including the president. It is called the High command of the party. It includes the Prime Minister and all senior leaders of the party. It takes all important decisions and implements them with the approval of AICC.

3. Parliamentary Board :
It consists of president and seven senior members. It takes decisions regarding the appointment and removal of Chief Ministers, selection of candidates.

4. Central Election Committee (CEC) :
It selects candidates to contest elections at the state and national level.

5. Pradesh Congress Committee (PCC) :
Every state has its own RC.C. It selects candidates to contest Assembly elections. At the lower level, it has District, Mandal and village committees. In reality, it acts as a centralized organisation.

Question 5.
Explain briefly about Bharatiya Janata Party. [Mar. 18]
Answer:
Bharatiya Janatha Party is one of the All India Parties in India. It was established on April 6, 1980. Earlier it was known as Bharatiya Jan Sangh founded by shyam Prasad Mukherjee on October 21, 1951. DeenadayalTJpadhyaya, Atal Bihari Vaj Payee, Lai Krishna Advani, Murali Manohar Joshi, Jana Krishna Murthy, Kushbhav Thakre and Venkaiah Naidu acted at it’s presidents.

Although initially unsuccessful, winning only two seats in the 1984 general election, it grew in strength on the back of the Ram Janmabhoomi and Babri Majid issue. Following victories in several state elections and better performances in national elections, the BJP became the largest party in the Parliament in 1996; however, it lacked a majority in the lower house of Parliament, and its government lasted only 13 days. After the 1998 general election, the BJP-led coalition known as the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) formed a government under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee for a year.

Following fresh elections, the NDA government, again headed by Vijpayee, lasted for a full term in office ; this was the first non-Congress government to do so. In the 2004 general election, the BJP led NDA suffered an unexpected defeat, and for the next ten years the BJP was the principal Opposition party. Long time Gujarat Chief Minister Narendra Modi, a principal campaigner and charismatic leader of the party, led it to a landslide victory in the 2014 general elections. Since that election, Narendra Modi leads the NDA government as Prime Minister with the alliance of 13 states owned parties.

Sri Amith Shah is the present President of the party.

The party had spread its influence in Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Jarkhand, Rajsthan, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi etc.

Policies:
Bharatiya Janatha Party favours a strong unitary state in place of the present quasi-federation. It has the following policies.

1. The party is committed to adopt the principles of nationalism, democracy, value based politics, national integration, positive secularism and Gaiidhian socialism.
2. It strives to implement five concepts, namely Suraksha, Sucharita, Swadeshi, Somrastha and Suvajya.
3. It aims at the construction of Ram temple at Ayodhya, abrogation of Article 3 to and implementation of Uniform Civil code.
4. It also aims at adopting electoral reforms.
5. It believes in the implementation of Swadeshi and Swabhiman policies.
6. It also aims at the adoption of a practical non-aligned policy in foreign affairs. It favours settlement of all disputes with the neighbouring states through dialogue and discussion. It strongly believes in the utilization of nuclear energy and arms for achieving peace and prosperity. It demands more democratization of the United Nations Organisation by expanding the membership of the security council.
7. It favours the continuation of the economic reforms initiated by the earlier governments through the policies of liberalization, privatization and globalization.
8. It vehemently opposes dynastic rule, assigning top executive offices and strongly supports decentralization of power and empowerment of women.

Question 6.
Estimate the significance of Regional Parties in India. [Mar. 17]
Answer:
In India’s federal democratic polity, regional and local parties would continue to have relevance and appeal, especially for certain dominant social and economic interests. The growing presence of regional parties is, undoubtedly, the most outstanding aspect of political I development in India over the past few years.

Till 1967, there was only one party ruling the nation that was ‘Congress Party’, but after 1967 a lot of other political parties came to the forefront along with power and started, to play an imperative and persuasive role in government. With the regional parties coming to the forefront the development of the state’s responsibility has gone to the regional parties as opposed to the Central Government taking care in the initial stages. Regional parties are playing a major role in influencing decisions and thought process in the government planning process and decisions.

After 1996, several regional parties have been emerging as key players in national politics in India. As partners of the NDA, 23 regional parties shared power at the Centre during 1999 and 2004. Some of the regional parties are ruling the states – AIADMK, TDP, JDU, BJD, UDF, NCP, SAD etc. All this reflects the continued and continuously growing importance of regional parties in the Indian politics.

During 1999 to 2004 the BJP, and several regional parties shared power at the Centre as constituents of the BJP led National Democratic Alliance (NDA). Later, the Congress led UPA was in power and in it along with Congress, several regional and local parties shared the power. The present BJP led NDA government is also a coalition government supported by several regional and local parties including Telugu Desam Party.

Question 7.
Write a note on Telugu Desam Party in Andhra Pradesh.
Answer:
Telugu Desam party is a prominent regional party in Andhra Pradesh. It was founded on March 29,1982 by N.T. Rama Rao, a popular Cine Star. It has achieved landslide victory in the A.R state Legislative Assembly elections held in December 1982. N.T.Rama Rao acted as the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh thrice – 1983, 1984 and 1994. There was a first split in the party in August 1984. N. Bhaskara Rao, a cabinet Minister quit the party and started a new party called Telugu Desam party (Democratic) and formed the ministry with the support of congress – I.

Consequently, Telugu Desam Party and some other parties launched agitation under the name of ‘Restoration of Democracy’. N.T. Rama Rao was reinstated as the Chief Minister by the then Governor, S.D. Sharma on the intervention of president Zail Singh. The party has lost its power in 1989. Assembly elections and has served as the main opposition in the state Legislative Assembly. It came to power again by winning majority seats in 1994 and 1999 elections. The party has undergone yet another split in August 1995 under the leadership of N. Chandra Babu Naidu and got recognition by the Election commission as the real one.

The party has joined as a partner in the United Front Ministry (1996-98) at the centre. It has extended its support from outside to the Union government led by National Democratic Alliance ministry (1999-2004). The party has continued in power in Andhra Pradesh between 1994 and April 2004. In the Andhra Pradesh general elections, 2004 and 2009 the Congress Party captured the power. The Telugu Desam Party gained a few more Assembly seats in 2009 elections than the 2004 election. In 14^th Assembly General Elections held in 2014, the Telugu Desam Party under the leadership of Nara Chandra Babu Naidu got 102 seats out of 174 Seats and formed the government.

Sri N. Chandrababu Naidu became the first Chief Minister of bifurcated Andhra Pradesh in 2014.

Policies :
Following are the main policies of Telugu Desam Party.

1. Provision of essential commodities at subsidised prices to the people living below poverty line (BPL).
2. Construction of houses for the poor.
3. Empowerment of women.
4. Adoption of e-governance.
5. Provision of education to every child between the age group of 6 -15.
6. Promotion of welfare of the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other weaker sections.
7. Administration at the doorsteps of the common man.
8. Provision of better Civil amenities to the poor.
9. Adopting secular policy.
10. Support to economic reforms such as liberalization, privatization and globalization.

Question 8.
Estimate the conditions helped for the emergence of Telangana Rastriya Samithi Party.
Answer:
Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) is a regional party which was established in the year 2001 in the integrated state of Andhra Pradesh by Sr. K. Chandra Sekhar Rao.

Conditions helped for the emergence of TRS :
i) Telangana state hood struggle is one of the longest people’s movement in the country. The six decade struggle, which began in early 1950s has reached its goal in February, 2014.

ii) The first statehood movement of 1950s led to the State Reorganization Commission recommending the Telangana state (then called Hyderabad State) in 1955 itself. Due to the political conditions that prevailed in Telangana then it had merged with Andhra State to form Andhra Pradesh.

iii) State in November, 1956. In May 1971, Telangana Praja Samithi headed by Marri Chenna Reddy won 10 of the Parliament seats in Telangana region. But, very soon, Chenna Reddy merged his party with Congress Party.

iv) While the statehood aspirations were alive in people it took sometimes before they found the right platform to intensify the agitation. In mid 1990s, several peoples organizations started organizing meeting on the statehood issue.

v) Sri Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao (KCR), Who was the Deputy Speker of A.P State Assembly, had started background work on Telangana issue in early 2000. On 17^th May, 2001, K.Chandra Sekhara.Rao announced the launch of Telangana Rashtra Samithi party. Prof. Jayashankar, ‘the ideologue of statehood movement extended his support to K.Chandra Sekhar Rao.

From then on wards it has been demanding separate state hood for Telangana Region. It contested in 2004 elections being an ally of congress party both for Lok Sabha as well as state legislative Assembly. In that elections T.R.S has won 5 Lok Sabha seats and 26 Assembly seats. It joined the Congress governments both at the centre and the state. Later, owing to certain political differences it came out from the government both at the centre and the state. In 2009 General elections. It contested to both Lok Sabha and Assembly being an ally of Grand Alliance with TDP CPI and CPM. It got 2 Lok Sabha seats and 10 Assembly seats.

On Nov 29^th, 2009 K. Chandra Sekhara Rao had announced an indefinite hunger strike demanding statehood to Telangana, The movement spread like wildfire with students, employees, peoples’ organizations plunging into it. In the next 10 days, the whole of Telangana region came to a standstill. As K: Chandra Sekhara Rao’s health was deteriorating very fast on December 9th 2009, the UPA government announced that the process of statehood for Telangana would be initiated.

But within two weeks, the UPA backtrack on this issue. KChandra Sekhara Rao then brought all political forces in Telangana region together to form the Telangana JAC an umbrella body of several organizations and parties under the chairmanship of Prof. Kodandaram. TRS cadre and leaders actively participated in several agitations and protests launched by Telangana’ Joint Action Committee (TJAC).

After four years of peaceful and powerful protests, the UPA government started the statehood process in July 2013 and concluded by passing the statehood bill in both Houses of Parliament in February 2014. After the separate statehood of Telangana, in 2014 general elections of the state, TRS party won the majority of seats and formed the government headed by K. Chandra Sekhar Rao as its first Chief Minister.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Functions of a Political Party.
Answer:
Functions of a Political Party:
The following are the main functions of Political Parties :

1. They articulate and aggregate social interests of people
2. Political recruitment
3. Means of public opinion
4. They promote political socialization and participation of – citizens
5. Making laws
6. Role of opposition
7. Access to government machinery and welfare schemes
8. They contribute legitimacy to the political system.

Question 2.
Types of Party System. [Mar. 17]
Answer:
There are different types of party system which are discussed below. They are classified into a single party system, Bi-Party system and Multi-Party System.

1. Single party system :
Single party system only one political party is an existence.
Ex: Nazi party in Germany, Fascist party in Italy, Communist party in China and in former USSR.

2) Bi-Party System:
Under Bi-party system, two major political parties are in working in a political system; one forms the government and the other functions as opposition.
Ex : Viz, the labour and the conservative parties in UK or republican and democratic parties in U.S.A.

3) Multi party System:
In Multi-party system there are more than two parties operating in a political system.
Ex : This type of party system is in existence in India, Sweden, Norway, France etc.

Question 3.
National Parties. [Mar. 18]
Answer:
A political party which participates in four or more states in Lok Sabha elections and secures 6% of valid polled votes plus 4 Lok Sabha seats can be recognised as National Party by the election commission of India. At present there are 6 National Parties in India. Indian National Congress, BJP, CPI, CPM, BSP, NCP

Question 4.
Regional Parties. [Mar. 16]
Answer:
A political party which participates in state Assembly elections and secures 6% of valid polled votes and 2 Assembly seats can be recognised as a regional party.
Ex : TDP in Andhra Pradesh, DMK and AIADMK in Tamil Nadu, AGP in Assom, National conference in J & K, Akalidal in Punjab, BJD in Odissa etc.

Question 5.
DMK. (Draviuda Munnetra Khajagam)
Answer:
The term ‘Dravida Munnetra Kazhagm’ means Tamilian Development Party’. It was the product of South Indian Association (1916) and Justice Party (1917). E.V Ramaswamy Naicker was its founder. This party has opposed Vehemently.
a) The dominance of upper castes.
b) Vedas.
c) Puranas and
d) All religious ceremonies conducted by the priests.

When Ramaswamy Naicker refused to honour the national flag and the India constitution, C.N. Annadurai opposed his decision and seeded from the parent institution Dravida Kazhagm (DK) and formed the present Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) on September 17, 1949.

Question 6.
AIADMK.
Answer:
All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Khazagam is a Prominent Regional Party in Tamil Nadu and Pondichery. It was established by Tamil Cine Star M.G. Ramachandran in October, 1972. M.G.R becameThe Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu in 1977 and continued in that office till his death in 1987. After his death Film Star Miss Jayalalitha became its general Secretary. She led the government in Tamil Nadu .during 1991 – 96 and again in 2001 and 2002. In 2011 state Assembly elections the party came to power. Jayalalitha became the Chief Minister for the third term on 16th May, 2011.

Question 7.
One Party Dominance.
Answer:
In the post independence politics of the country. The role of the Congress party was so great that India was often described as a single dominant party system. The congress was the party of consensus and its strategy was all inclusive. It was often described as a miniature Indian Society which reflected all the essentials in the nation. From First General Elections of 1952 to the present 16th Loksabha general elections of 2014. The Congress party was in power at the centre for 52 years out of 62 years. It shows that the Congress party dominating the political scence of our country.

Question 8.
Multi Party System. [Mar. 16]
Answer:
In Multi party system there are more than two parties operating in a political system.
Ex : This type of party system is in existence in India, France, Sweeden etc.

Question 9.
Bahujana Samaj Party. (BSP) [Mar. 18]
Answer:
It is a dominant party in India. It was established by Kanshi Ram in 1985 a retired civil servant. It’s main motto was the preservation and promotion of the interests of down trodden sections in the society. It vehemently opposes the preaching of many and practices of upper castes in society. That is why it always opposed in B.J.P. It’s strength in the Thirteen Lok Sabha, stood at 14. This party came to power in U.R Thrice under the leadership of Mayavathi. Mayavathi is the present President of this party.

Question 10.
Nationalist Congress Party. (NCP)
Answer:
The Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) is a centre to centre left political party primarily based in the states of Maharastra, Kerala and Meghalaya. NCP was formed on 25 May 1999, by sharad pawar. P. A. Sangma and Tariq Anwar after they were expelled from the Indian National Congress (INC) on 20^th May 1999, for disputing the right of Italian – bom Sonia Gandhi to lead Party. Sharad pawar is its president. It was an ally of Congress led UPA government during 2004 to 2014.

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 10th Lesson Local Governments in India Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 10th Lesson Local Governments in India

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain the Functions of Panchayati Raj Institutions in India.
Answer:
Rural Governments in India after Independence were set up on the recommendations of the Balwant Raj Mehta Committee (1957) Earlier the new constitution (1950) made a reference to these bodies in Article 40 of the Directive Principles of State Policy.

The Rural Local Governments or Panchayati Raj Institutions are known by several names such as democratic decentralized institutions, local self-government institutions, three-tier democratic bodies, grass root level democratic agencies, etc. The Word Panchayati Raj denotes the name of local self-governments in rural in India.

At present Panchayati Raj Institutions in India are constituted on the basis of the Constitution (Seventy-Third Amendment) Act, 1992. Normally all the states in India (excepting those whose population is less than 20 lakhs) provided a three-tier system in the rural areas. The nomenclature, however, could differ from state to state. These relate to

1. Village Panchayats.
2. Panchayat Samithi (Mandal Parishads) and
3. Zilla Parishads

1) Village Panchayat:
Village (or) Gram Panchayat is the lowest tier in the Panchayat Raj System. Normally there will be a village panchayat for a minimum population of 250.

Composition of Gram Panchayat
Every Gram Panchayat comprises four organs, namely ;
i. Panchayat ii. Sarpanch, iii. Panchayat Secretary and iv. Garm Sabha.

Essential Functions :
Essential functions have to be carried out by the Gram Panchayat without fail. These include the following items.

• Construction, repair and maintenance of roads and other public places.
• Construction/repair and maintenance of drainage canals.
• Construction and maintenance of burial grounds.
• Erection and maintenance of electric polls.
• Maintenance of birth and death registers.
• Conducting vaccinations for controlling rabbis and other contagious diseases.
• Provision of drinking water facilities.
• Constructions, repair and maintenance of footpaths, causeways, culverts, public parks, play grounds.
• Manufacture and sale of manures.
• Maintenance of cattle farms and so on.

Discretionary Functions :
Gram Panchayat performs these functions subject to the availability of financial resources. These include the following.

• Construction and maintenance of rest houses.
• Construction and maintenance of primary schools, dispensaries, libraries, reading rooms, market places etc.
• Establishment and maintenance of maternal and child welfare centers.
• Mobilizing voluntary labour for community development works.
• Publicizing the modem methods of cultivation.
• Implementation of land reforms and so on.

2) Mandal Parishad :
Mandal parishad is the intermediate tier in the Panchayat Raj System.

Composition :
Every Mandal Parishad comprises four organs namely,

1. Mandal Parishad
2. Mandal Parishad President
3. Mandal Parishad Development Officer and
4. Mandal Mahasabha

Functions of Mandal Parishad :
Mandal Parishad performs the following functions.

1. It takes steps for implementing various community development programmes.
2. It makes arrangements for providing amenities like dispensaries, drinking water, vaccination and non-choking gas stoves.
3. It implements several programmes like community educations communications, cooperation, cottage industries, women welfare, social welfare etc.
4. It takes steps for raising production in agricultural sector through the provision of superior quality seeds, manures, pesticides, latest technology etc.
5. It implements programmes for improving the health and strength of cattle by furnishing improved fodder, artificial insemination centers, cattle grazing etc.

3) Zilla Parishad :
Zilla Parishad is the upper tier of the Panchayat Raj System. There will be a Zilla Parishad in every district. Zilla Parishad is the superior local body at the district level and has the corporate status. It is known as Zilla Panchayat in Gujarat, Zilla Vikasparishat in Timil Nadu and Mahakum Council in Assom, District Development Council in Karnataka.

Composition :
Zilla Parishad comprises six organs, namely ;

• Zilla Parishad
• Zilla Parishad Chairman
• Zilla Mahasabha
• Chief Executive Officer
• Standing Committees and
• District Collector

Functions of Zilla Parishad :
Zilla Parishad performs the following functions

1. It approves the annual budget of the Mandal Parishads in the District.
2. It allocates the grants sanctioned by the union and state governments among the Mandal Parishads. ,
3. It takes steps for implementing the directives of the union and state governments.
4. It acts as the supervising and coordinating agency of various programmes of Mandal Parishad in the district.
5. It conducts statistical surveys as per the guidelines of various union and state governments.
6. It maintains secondary schools in the district.
7. It renders advice to the union and state governments on financial matters of the Village Panchayats and Mandal Parishads.

Question 2.
Describe the various types of Urban Local Governments in India. [Mar. 17]
Answer:
As per the 74^th Constitution Amendment Act, eight types of Urban Local Bodies are existing in India. They are mentioned as follows:

1. Municipal Corporation
2. Municipality
3. Nagar Panchayat
4. Notified Area Committee
5. Town Area Committee
6. Cantonment Board
7. Township
8. Port Trust
9. Special Purpose Agency.

These may be explained as follows :
1. Municipal Corporation:
Municipal Corporation is an important category of urban local government. It is the highest local government institution working in each large urban area. It is constituted by a special Act of the State Government. The first Municipal Corporation was setup in the former presidency town of Madras in 1687. It was followed by similar Corporations in Bombay and Calcutta. The state government can declare the transformation of a Municipality into a Municipal Corporation when the population is at least three lakhs and annual income is four crores rupees.

Composition:
The number of members of each Municipal Corporation is determined on the basis of the population of the city concerned by the law passed by the state legislature. Every Municipal Corporation consists of four organs, namely (i) Corporation Council, (ii) Mayor, (iii) Commissioner and (iv) Standing Committees.

2. Municipalities :
Municipalities are a type of urban local bodies functioning below the level of Municipal Corporation and above that of the Nagar Panchayat / Notified Area. Normally, Municipalities are constituted for a population of 20,001 and above of when annual income is above Rs.60 lakhs. They are also constituted when annual income is above 20 lakhs acquiring from Trade Licenses, Profession taxes and non-agricultural sectors. Sometimes Panchayats are upgraded as Municipalities on the basis of population density and employment opportunities.

Municipalities are classified into five grades basing on their annual income. They are :

1. Selection Grade Municipalities – Annual income over and above Rs. 4 Crores.
2. Special Grade Municipalities – Annual income varying between Rs. 3 and 4 Crores.
3. First Grade Municipalities – Annual income varying between Rs. 2 and 3 Crores:
4. Second Grade Municipalities – Annual income varying between Rs. 1 and 2 Crores.
5. Third Grade Municipalities – Annual income below Rs. One crore.

Composition :
There are four organs in every Municipality, namely, (i) Municipal Council, (ii) Municipal Chairman, (iii) Municipal Commissioner and (iv) Standing Committees.

3. Nagar Panchayat:
Nagar Panchayats are created for transitional areas (the area which is fast changing from a rural to an urban area) or for a very small urban area. For this purpose, several factors are taken into consideration; the density of the population therein, the revenue generated for local administration, the percentage of employment in non-agricultural activities, the economic importance of the area and some others.

Composition:
The strength of the members of Nagar Panchayat is fixed by the State Legislature from time to time. They are directly elected by the people of the area on the basis of adult franchise. For the purpose of election, the areas of Nagar Panchayat is divided into wards and each ward elects one member. Besides the elected members, the Member of the State Legislative Assembly (M.L.A) representing that area is also the ex-officio member of Nagar Panchayat. Every Nagar Panchayat elects one President and one Vice-President amongst its members. They are elected by all the elected members. The President presides over its meettings.

4. Notified Area Committee :
This is constituted either for a fast developing town or an area not fulfilling the conditions for the creation of Municipality. As it is created through a special notification of the state government, it is known as Notified Areas Committee. It does not possess statutory position. It will have a Chairman and some members who are nominated by the state government. Its functions are more or less same as9 that of a Municipality.

5. Town Area Committee :
Town area committee is setup by an act of State Legislature. It fulfils the public needs of a small town. It will have a chairman and members nominated by the state government. It performs limited functions like street lighting, drainage etc. Its authorities take steps for improving the conditions of the people living in the town area.

6. Cantonment Boards :
Cantonment Boards are established in India under the Cantonment Act of 1924. At present there are 62 Cantonment Boards in India. These bodies take steps for improving the conditions of civilian population and military personnel in their jurisdiction. There are three types of Cantonment Boards in India. They are created by an Act of the defense ministry. Each Board comprises some members belonging to the elected, nominated and ex-officio categories. There will be a General Officer on Command (GOC) for every Cantonment Board.

7. Township :
Township is established by the public sector undertakings to provide basic civic amenities to its personnel. It has no elected members. There will’ be a Town Administrator for every Township, He is appointed by the concerned ministry of union government. Its services are meant not for the general public but for the personnel working in the public sector undertakings.

8. Port Trust:
Port Trust is setup in the areas where port personnel are in considerable- member. It manages the affairs of ports. It takes proper steps for protecting the interests of personnel in the port areas. The union government constitutes port affairs committee. The committee comprises both nominated and elected members.

9. Special Purpose Agencies :
These agencies are meant for tackling some special issues faced by the people. They perform some peculiar functions for the people residing in municipalities and other notified urban areas. They are established by the special Acts of state legislature. Sometimes they came into vogue through a special order of the state government. Housing Board, Water Supply, Undertakings, Electricity Generation and Distributions Grids, Urban Development Authorities etc., are some examples of these Agencies.

Question 3.
Mention briefly the main provisions of the 73^rd Constitution Amendment Act.
Answer:
The Union Government headed by the Prime Minister P.V Narasimha Rao strongly felt the need for immediate grant of Constitutional status to the Panchayat Raj Institutions. It introduced a Bill to that effect in the Parliament in September 1991. Later, the bill was referred to a joint select committee which studied the former and submitted its report in July 1992.

The bill was accepted by the Parliament and the same was referred to the state legislatures for their approval. As majority state legislative assemblies accepted the Bill, it became an Act in the name of the Constitution (Seventy Third Amendment) Act, The Act came into force from April 24, 1993.

The Act reinserted Part IX which was deleted by the Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956 and added a new Schedule, namely 11^th schedule. The Act deals with Articles 243 to 243 (O) of the Indian Constitution.

Salient features
The 73^rd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992 has the following salient features:

1. The Act defined clearly certain terms like District, Gram Sabha, Panchayat, Village etc.,
2. It constituted a Gram Sabha for every village which acts as the legislative body at the village level.
3. It made obligatory for every state to implement three tire system of Panchayat Raj i.e., Panchayat at the Village, intermediate and district levels.
4. It insisted every state legislature to make laws for the composition of Panchayat on uniform basis. It further specified direct elections to panchayat based on territorial constituencies. It provides right to vote to the chairpersons of Panchayat and other members whether directly elected or not.
5. It provided reservation in every Panchayat for Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes in proportion to their population to the total population in the Panchayat area and women not less than 1/3^rd of the total seats (Andhra Pradesh Government enhanced the Women Reservation up to 50%).
6. It specified the duration of Panchayat as five years and insisted on holding elections before the expiration of the term or in case of dissolution within six months.
7. It prescribed the eligibility and disqualifications of the candidates in local government.
8. It provided for the creation of a Finance Commission for local bodies.
9. It provided for auditing the accounts of the Panchayats by the state account and audit officers.
10. It also provided for State Election Commission for conducting elections to the local bodies.
11. It stated that union territories shall follow the directives of the President of India in constituting or abolishing Panchayats.
12. It mentioned some exemptions to the states having administrative councils in scheduled areas.
13. It provided for special Tribunals for solving election disputes.

Question 4.
Explain briefly the important provisions of 74^th Constitution Amendment Act.
Answer:
The Constitution (Seventy Fourth Amendment) Act, 1992 was approved by the Parliament in December, 1992. It was regarded as a progressive step in strengthening the urban local bodies in India. It provided a common framework for the effective functioning of these bodies. The Act came into force on June 1, 1993.

Main Provisions :

1. The Act gave Constitutional status to the urban local bodies in India for the first time. It introduced a new part in the Constitution, namely part IX-A.
2. It incorporated the 12th schedule in the Constitution.
3. It listed out 18 subjects under the jurisdiction of urban local bodies.
4. It gave definitions of various terms concerning the urban local bodies. It constituted metropolitan area for urban areas having a population of ten lakhs or more.
5. It provided for the Constitution of various urban local bodies such as Municipal Corporation, Municipal Council, Nagar Panchayat etc. The Act authorized the state governments to designate and demarcate the urban local bodies as and when necessary.
6. It specified the composition of the Municipalities. It declared that the elected members of the Legislative Assembly and the Lok Sabha of the concerned area will act as ex-officio members of the Municipalities. It also authorized and members of Legislative Council and the Rajya Sabha as members of Municipalities subject to their voting enumeration in the respective areas.
7. It authorized the state legislature to make legislation for the composition of ward committees in Municipalities.
8. It provided for reservation of some seats in urban local bodies for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population in municipal areas. It also enabled one – third reservation for women in municipal areas and to the offices of Chairman / Chairperson of Municipalities on rotation basis.
9. It prescribed the uniform term for 5 years for Municipalities. It also clarified that elections shall be held within the six months after its dissolution.
10. It specified that the persons who are disqualified to become members of Legislative Assembly shall also become disqualified as members of Municipality. It also prescribes 21 years of age for becoming a member of Municipality.
11. It empowered the state legislature to make laws enabling the Municipalities to impose and collect taxes, allocate funds and receive Grant-in-aid from the state government.
12. It enabled the state government to appoint the State Finance Commission for every five years for making recommendations (to the Governor) on the principles for distribution of Grants-in-aid among the urban local bodies.
13. It allowed the state legislature to make legislation for the audit of the accounts of urban local bodies.
14. It provided for the appointment of State Election Commission to conduct, supervise, direct and control the elections to the urban local bodies.
15. It also enabled the state legislature to create a district planning committee in each district for consolidating the plan activities.
16. It provides for the establishment of metropolitan planning committees state.

Question 5.
Estimate the Powers and Functions of the District Collector. [Mar. 18, 16]
Answer:
Power and Functions of District Collector: The District Collector enjoys vast power and performs several functions as the head of the district administration. These may be explained as follows :

A) The Collector as District Revenue Officer :
The Collector is the Chief District Revenue Officer. He, in that capacity, serves as the chief guide to the farmers in the district by fulfilling several obligations. His revenue functions include various activities such as collection of land revenue, sanction of agricultural loans to farmers, rescuing the farmers in times of natural calamities by assessing the loss incurred by them, rendering assistance to the union and state authorities in emergency relief measures etc.

B) The Collector as District Magistrate:
The Collector acts as the District Magistrate. He will have supervision over the activities of the district police personnel. He sees that law and order conditions in the district are normal. For this purpose he will be assisted by a large number of police personnel. The district superintendent of police and other police officers owe responsibility to the Collector in matters such as supervision over police personnel prisons etc,. The Collector can inspect the police stations in the district. He is empowered to issue prohibitory orders on the occasion of breakdown of law and order. He can issue firing orders when all peaceful efforts failed in the restoration of normal.

C) The Collector as Chief Coordinator :
The District Collector acts as the chief co-ordinator of various government departments in the district. He acts as the chief counsel and co-ordinator of the departments such as agriculture, irrigation, co-operation and labour affairs. The heads of these departments shall oblige and implement the suggestions and guidelines of the collector in the district. Even though these heads formulate their policies independently, they are answerable to the District Collector in their discharge of their obligations.

D) The Collector as District Electoral Officer :
The Collector acts the chief district electoral officer. He serves as the main agent of the Election Commission of India for conducting elections to the various representative bodies in the district. He takes steps for conducting the elections in fair and impartial manner. These include preparation of electoral list and its modification, hearing public grievances on voters list, registration of new voters, appointing returning officers assistant returning officers etc.

E) The Collector as the Chief Census Officer:
The Collector acts as the chief census officer in the district. He on behalf of the union and state governments, takes steps for holding census operations in the district for every ten years. He also sees that the statistical data regarding the number of milch cattle, trees and domesticated animals in the district is collected properly. He also compiles such other information as required by the higher ties in regard to the construction of houses for the poor, family welfare, women erment, rural infrastructure etc.

F) The Collector as Permanent invitee of Local Bodies :
The District Collector is a permanent invitee to the meetings of Panchayat Raj and urban local bodies in the district. He acts as a main link between the union and state governments and district local bodies on various matters. He participates in the normal/emergency meetings of Zilla Parishad and mandal parishads in the district. He sends confidential reports to the state government on the nature of functioning of these bodies. He conducts the meeting meant for considering the no confidence motion against the Zilla Parishad chairman.

Other Functions :
This District Collector also performs the following functions.

1. Matters concerning the welfare of Ex-servicemen.
2. Provision of irrigation facilities.
3. Supervision over sub treasuries.
4. Co-ordinating the activities of various government departments.
5. Supervising the training programmes for Junior Officers.

Role of District Collector in Local Government:
The District Collector plays a crucial role in the affairs of local governments in the district. He serves as the friend, philosopher and guide to the common men living in the district. He also serves as a link between people and local bodies in the district. Normally the common men seek guidance and solace from the Collector in times of natural calamities and other unforeseen contengencies.

The Collector makes recommendations to the state government in regard to the working of the local bodies in the district. His valuable remarks are required for constituting new gram panchayats and mandal parishads in the district. The entire administrative, revenue, police, health, educational and agricultural personnel working in rural areas depend to a great extent upon the advice and suggestions forwarded by the Collector on may occasions.

He sees that the farmers in the district receive sufficient agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, water, rural credit, marketing facilities etc. He supervises the activities of village extension officers and sees that the farmers receive various types of assistance for carrying on their agricultural, operations smoothly. He also sees that all persons below poverty line will receive, ration and pension facilities.

The fact that the Collector heads more than one hundred committees at the district level demonstrates his role in district affairs. He, like the Chief Minister at the state level, will have tremendous influence and powers in the district. Many programmes of union and state governments like National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS), Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY), Aam Admi Bima Yojana (AABYj, Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP). Prime Ministers Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP).

The union and state governments, rely on the District Collector in tackling the financial, political and cultural matters of the people living in local areas, They nominate the District Collector as the chairman, co-ordinator or secretary of the above programmes at the district level. People regard the Collector as a repository of authority functioning independently with dedicated spirit. Eventhough some states like Gujarath and Maharashtra relieved the Collector from the perspective.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write briefly about the Historical background of Local Governments in India.
Answer:
Historical Background: Local governments in India have a long historical background. The Rigveda, the oldest of four Vedas, mentioned two institutions namely, Sabha and Samithi which performed several administrative and political functions at community level. They were the effective administrative state structures at local levels in ancient period. They relate to village panchayats and caste panchayats . Which managed the administrative and judicial affairs of a village community. These institutions continued for several years even without the effective support of the ruling classes of the time. Many eminent writers like Megasthanes, Kautilya and Fahien have cited the existence of these bodies in their writings.

In medieval period, village panchayats flourished during the chola dynasty in South India. The cholas were renowned for their patronage of the local bodies. However, the local governments of the present form is attributed to the efforts of some British officers at higher levels. They developed these bodies to promote the colonial interests. Lord Mayo’s Resolution (1870) and Lord Rippon’s Resolution (1882) paved the way for the progress of these institutions in India. Earlier the East India Company established the Municipal Corporation of Madras in 1688 with the consent of Emperor George II.

Some Mayor courts wefe set up in Madras in 1726 for collecting taxes and administering, justice. The Regulating Act of 1773 paved the way for the establishment of local governments at Calcutta (Kalkota), Madras and Bombay (Mumbai). Lord Rippon, the Governor General of India moved the famous resolution for devolving financial and administrative powers to the local governments. His resolution is known as the Magnacarta of Local Governments in India.

He was described as the father of local self-governments in India. Later on the successive British rulers in India have initiated many steps for providing more authority to the local bodies. Some of the notable legal enactments are Bengal Municipalities Act, 1884; Bengal Local Governments Act, 1885; Bengal Village self-government Act, 1919 etc. The Royal Commission on Decentralization headed by Sir Charles Hobhouse (1906) offered valuable suggestions for setting up of village panchayats, constitution of district boards, entrusting primary obligations to municipalities etc. The Government of India Act, 1919 introduced diarchy at state level. It gave impetus to the local governments. It empowered the Indian ministers to take decisions in regard to the maintenance of local bodies.

The Government of India Act, 1935 assigned the provincial governments with the obligation of making the local bodies energetic and efficient. It placed the subject of ‘Local Self Government’ under Entry 12 of the provincial governments. Consequently many provincial governments passed Acts delegating the local governments the powers of administration including criminal justice to the panchayats. Prominent leaders of national movement like Mahatina Gandhi supported the cause of local governments.

Question 2.
Explain the advantages of Local Government.
Answer:
Definition:
Local Government is defined in many ways by different political scientists. Some of them are cited below :

According to Sidgewick “Local government consists of certain subordinate bodies which have defined powers of making rules and regulations within their prescribed area of administration.” Prof. Finer. H defined that “the Local Government means authority to determine and execute measure within a restricted area inside and smaller than the whole state.” In the words of Duane Lockard “Public Organization authorized to decide and administer a large range of public policies within its small territory”.

Advantages- of Local Governments? Local governments have the following advantages :

1. Local government institutions provide extensive range of service to the people.
2. They lead to efficiency of administration at local as well as state and national level.
3. They lead to economy in administration.
4. They cultivate spirit of self – help and self – dependence.
5. They promote spirit of liberty among people.
6. The Local Governments facilitate the ventilation of people’s grievances and provide effective solution to local problems.
7. They ensure the participation of the people in the formulation and implementation of development programmes at grass root level.

Question 3.
What are the Functions of Panchayat Secretary?
Answer:
Every Panchayat shall have a full time Secretary who is an officer of the government. He shall draw his salary and allowances from the Panchayat fund as per government rules. He will be iri charge of the office of the Panchayat. He will work under the direct supervision of the Panchayat Sarpanch.
Powers and Functions of the Panchayat Secretary.

Panchayat at Secretary performs the following functions. They are :

• Preparation of budget and annual administration report.
• Preparation of monthly / quarterly statements of accounts.
• Maintenance of cash book.
• Keeping all records of the Panchayat in safe custody.
• Allotment of duties to the staff posted in Gram Panchayat.
• Submission of application for grant-in-aid and maintain grant-in-aid register:
• Visit the work sites and assess the work in progress.
• Attend to complaints relating to developmental works etc.

Question 4.
What do you know about Gram Sabha?
Answer:
Gram Sabha :
There will be a Gram Sabha in every Panchayat. It comprises all the adult citizens who have been entitled to vote. It meets at least twice a year usually after Rabi and Kharif crops are harvested. It discusses and approves the administrative and audit reports. It identifies the beneficiaries of development schemes. It takes steps for mobilizing voluntary labour for community welfare programmes.

In many states Gram Sabhas are known with the same name. However, they are called Panchayats in Bihar and Palisabhas in Odisha. The Union Government declared the year 2009 – 2010 as the year of Gram Sabha on the eve of golden jubilee celebrations of village Panchayat. It directed the state governments to make arrangements for convening Gram Sabha on April 14 of every year. (Second one in the month of October)

Question 5.
Write a brief note on Mandal Parishad.
Answer:
Mandal Parishad is the intermediate tier in the Panchayat Raj System. It is set up according to the statutes of state government. In different states, the Panchayat Samiti has been given different names. Tamil Nadu calls them Panchayat Union Council, in Karnataka as the Taluka Development Board, in Gujarat as the Taluka Panchayat. However, the most popular name happens to be the Panchayat Samithi. 4
Composition
Every Mandal Parishad comprises four organs namely,

1. Mandal Parishad
2. Mandal Parishad President
3. Mandal Parishad Development officer and
4. Mandal Mahasabha

Question 6.
Explain the composition of Zilla Parishad.
Answer:
Composition
Zilla Parishad comprises six organs, namely ;

1. Zilla Parishad
2. Zilla Parishad Chairman
3. Zilla Mahasabha
4. Chief Executive Officer
5. Standing Committees and
6. District Collector

i) Zilla Parishad :
Zilla Parishad is the legislative wing at the district level. It comprises various types of members, i.e., elected, co-opted and ex-officio members. District level authorities like the District Collector, Chairmen of District Co-operative Central Bank, District Co-operative Marketing Society and Zilla Grandhalaya Samastha participate in the meetings as permanent invitees. Besides, the Members of State Legislative Assembly and Lok Sabha participate in the meetings as ex – officio members.

ii) Zilla Parishad Chairman :
The Chairman, being the political head, presides over the meeting of Zilla Parishad. He is elected by the elected members of Zilla Parishad, i.e., ZPTCs, MPs, MLAs and MLCs of the district concerned. The Chairman presides over the ordinary and special meetings of the Zilla Parishad. He conducts the meetings with dignity.

He permits the members for moving resolutions, allocates time for discussion and conducts voting on the resolutions. He also presides over the meetings of Zilla Mahasabha and some standing committees. He acts as a link between Zilla Parishad and the State Government. He-will have administrative control over the Z.P. Chief Executive Officer in the implementation of various resolutions. –

iii) Zilla Mahasabha :
There will be a Zilla Mahasabha in every Zilla Parishad. It comprises a chairman and some other members of Zilla Parishad. It serves as an advisory body to the Zilla Parishad. The Zilla Parishad Chairman presides over its meetings. The Chief Executive Officer attends its meetings in Ex-officio capacity. It performs three important functions, namely

1. Examining the annual budget and audit reports of Zilla Parishad
2. Administrative report of the previous year and
3. Other matters of Zilla Parishad.

iv) Chief Executive Officer (C.E.O):
There will be a Chief Executive Officer in every Zilla Parishad. He is appointed by the state government and responsible to the State Government and Zilla Parishad in exercise of his powers and functions. He serves as the administrative head of Zill Parishad.

v) Standing Committees:
There are seven Standing Committees in Zilla Parishad. They render advice to the Zilla Parishad on several matters like planning, finance, agriculture, rural development, women, social welfare, education, health etc. The Chief Executive Officer prepares the agenda of the meeting and decides the venue of the standing committees on the advice of Zilla Parishad Chairman.

vi) The District Collector :
The District Collector participates in Zilla Parishad and standing committee meetings as a permanent invitee.

Question 7.
Elucidate various Urban Local Bodies in India.
Answer:
As per the 74^th Constitution Amendment Act, eight types of Urban Local Bodies are existing in India. They are mentioned as follows :

1. Municipal Corporation
2. Municipality
3. Nagar Panchayat
4. Notified Area Committee
5. Town Area Committee
6. Cantonment Board
7. Township
8. Port Trust
9. Special Purpose Agency,

1) Municipal Corporation:
Municipal Corporation is an important category of urban local government. It is the highest local government institution working in each large urban area. It is constituted by a special Act of the State Government. The first Municipal Corporation was setup in the former presidency town of Madras in 1687. It was followed by similar Corporations in Bombay and Calcutta. The state government can declare the transformation of a Municipality into a Municipal Corporation when the population is at least three lakhs and annual income is four crore rupees.

2) Municipalities :
Municipalities are a type of urban local bodies functioning below the level of Municipal Corporation and above that of the Nagar Panchayat / Notified Area. Normally, Municipalities are constituted for a population of 20,001 and above or when annual income is above Rs. 60 lakhs. They are also constituted when annual income is above 20 lakhs acquiring from Trade Licenses, Profession taxes and non-agricultural sectors. Sometimes Panchayats are upgraded as Municipalities on the basis of population density and employment opportunities.

3) Nagar Panchayat:
Nagar Panchayats are created for transitional areas (the area which is fast changing from a rural to an urban area) or for a very small urban area. For this purpose, several factors are taken into consideration; the density of the population therein, the revenue generated for local administration, the percentage of employment in non-agricultural activities, the economic importance of the area and some others.

4) Notified Area Committee :
This is constituted either for a fast developing town or an area not fulfilling the conditions for the creation of Municipality. As it is created through a special notification of the state government, it is known as Notified Areas Committee. It does not possess statutory position. It will have a Chairman and some members who are nominated by the state government. Its functions are more or less same as that of a Municipality.

5) Town Area Committee :
Town area committee is setup by an act of State Legislature. It fulfils the public needs of a small town. It will have a chairman and members nominated by the state government. It performs limited functions like street lighting, drainage etc. Its authorities take steps for improving the conditions of the people living in the town area.

6) Cantonment Boards :
Cantonment Boards are established in India under the Cantonment Act of 1924. At present there are 62 Cantonment Boards in India. These bodies take steps for improving the conditions of civilian population and military personnel in their jurisdiction. There are three types of Cantonment Boards in India. They are created by an Act of the defense ministry. Each Board comprises some members belonging to the elected, nominated and ex-officio categories. There will be a General Officer on Command (GOC) for every Cantonment Board.

7) Township :
Township is established by the public sector undertakings to provide basic civic amenities to its personnel. It has no elected members. There will be a Town Administrator for every Township. He is appointed by the concerned ministry of union government. Its services are meant not for the general public but for the personnel working in the public sector undertakings.

8) Port Trust:
Port Trust is setup in the areas where port personnel are in considerable member. It manages the affairs of ports. It takes proper steps for protecting the interests of personnel in the port areas. The union government constitutes port affairs committee. The committee comprises both nominated and elected members.

9) Special Purpose Agencies :
These agencies are meant for tackling some special issues faced by the people. They perform some peculiar functions for the people residing in municipalities and other notified urban areas. They are established by the special Acts of state legislature. Sometimes they came into vogue through a special order of the state government. Housing Board, Water Supply, Undertakings, Electricity Generation and Distributions Grids, Urban Development Authorities etc., are some examples of these Agencies.

Question 8.
What do you know about the Municipalities?
Answer:
Municipalities are a type of urban local bodies functioning below the level of municipal corporation and above that of the Nagar Panchayat. Normally Municipalities are constituted for a population of 20,001 and above or when annual income is above Rs. 60 lakhs.
Municipalities are classified into five grades basing on their annual income. They are :

1. Selection Grade Municipalities – Annual income over and above Rs. 4 Crores.
2. Special Grade Municipalities – Annual income varying between Rs. 3 and 4 Crores.
3. First Grade Municipalities – Annual income varying between Rs. 2 and 3 Crores.
4. Second Grade Municipalities – Annual income varying between Rs. 1 and 2 Crores.
5. Third Grade Municipalities – Annual income below Rs. 1 Crore.

Composition :
There are four organs in every Municipality, namely, (i) Municipal Council, (ii) Municipal Chairman, (iii) Municipal Commissioner and (iv) Standing Committees

The structure, powers and functions of these may be explained as under:

i) Municipal Council:
Municipal Council is the deliberative body of the Municipality. It consists of some (i) elected, (ii) co-opted and (iii) ex-officio members. Registered voters in the municipal area elect the first category of members. They are called councillors. The elected members will in turn elect the second category of members. They are called co¬opted members. The District Collector and the Municipal Commissioner; The members of the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly of the area,concerned are called as the ex¬officio members.

Normally the Council meets once in a month. The Municipal Commissioner prepares the agenda of the Municipal Council after consulting the Municipal Chairman. Some seats in the Municipal Council are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Backward Classes and women. Municipal Council considers the matters relating to the Municipality.

ii) Municipal Chairman :
Municipal Chairman is the political head of the Municipal Council. He is elected by the councillors. He is the first citizen of the Town. The Chairman conducts the meetings of the Municipal Council. All the correspondence of the Municipality shall be carried on in his name.

iii) Municipal Commissioner :
Municipal Commissioner is the administrative head of the Municipality. He is responsible for discharging his functions in the Municipal Council and the State Government.

iv) Standing Committees :
Every Municipality consists of some standing committees. These Committees act as advisory bodies to the Municipality on matters of finance, works, health, education, women welfare, and welfare of the backward classes etc. Municipal Chairman presides over the meeting of these committees. The standing committees establish a liaison with the routine administrative matters of the Minicipality.

Functions of Municipality: Every Municipality, like that of the Municipal Corporation, performs two types of functions, namely (i) essential and (ii) discretionary.

Essential Functions
Essential functions of the Municipality include the following:

1. Maintenance of birth and death registers.
2. Establishment and maintenance of elementary, upper primary and secondary schools.
3. Provision of purified drinking water and street lights.
4. Maintenance of public health and sanitation.
5. Construction and maintenance of roads and buildings.
6. Safeguarding and preserving municipal properties etc.

Discretionary Functions
A Municipality performs the following discretionary functions.

1. Reclamation of unhygienic places.
2. Maintenance of parks, museums, gardens, rest houses, regarding rooms etc.
3. Maintenance of child, women welfare and maternity centers.

Sources of Income
Every Municipality has the following five sources of income.

1. Taxes collected from people
2. Fees and duties
3. Income in the form of rent from markets and buildings.
4. Public borrowings and grants and
5. Public contributions.

Question 9.
Write any three Functions of District Collector?
Answer:
1. Revenue Administration :
Revenue administration is a traditional function of the- Collector, (a) The Collector makes arrangements for the collection of land revenue (b) He hears the difficulties of the farmers on land revenue matters (c) He receives petitions from the farmers and tries to settle their problems (d) He collects land revenue. In this respect, he is assisted by officials of revenue department like Revenue Divisional Officers, Mandal Revenue Officers, Revenue Inspectors etc., (e) He is responsible for Land reforms, Land acquisition etc. (f) He recommends remissions of Land revenue during famines or other calamities, (g) He maintains land revenue records and agricultural statistics of the district.

2. District Magistrate:
The Collector acts as the District Magistrate. In that capacity, he

• Issues orders for the maintenance of law and order in the district.
• Disposes petitions and complaints from the private individuals and the Government.
• Imposes prohibitory orders during disturbances.
• Supervises Subordinate Courts.
• Take steps for the provision of better facilities to prisoners.
• Inspects police stations ….etc.

3. As a District Election Officer:
District Collector is the returning officer for elections to Parliament and State Legislature within the district. It is his responsibility to coordinate the election work at district level and conduct the polls freely and peacefully.

Thus the Collector plays a key role in district administration. He is considered as the friend, philosopher and guide of the people in the district.

Question 10.
Estimate the Role of a District Collector.
Answer:
The fact that the Collector heads more than one hundred committees at the district level demonstrates his role in district affairs. He not only presides over such meetings but also takes steps for implementing the decisions taken there of. He visits various mandals and villages in the district for about twenty days in every month and supervises the development of local bodies at the field level. He, like the chief minister at the state level, will have tremendous influence and powers in the district.

Many programmes of union and state governments like National Rural employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS), Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY), Aam Admi Bima Yojana (AABY), Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP). Prime Ministers Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP), Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana (VAMBAY), National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), Mid-Day Meal (MDM) scheme etc, depend upon the dynamic leadership of the district collector.

The union and state governments, rely on the District Collector in tackling the financial, political and cultural matters of the people living in local areas. They nominate the District Collector as the chairman, co-ordinator or secretary of the above programmes at the district level. People regard the Collector as a repository of authority functioning independently with dedicated spirit.

Even though some states like Gujarath and Maharashtra relieved the Collector from the perspective of development functions, even today it is popularly felt about the prominence of the Collector due the popular confidence and credibility. The people of North India prefer to address the District Collector as their maa- baap (mother and father).

Question 11.
Explain the concept of Smart village.
Answer:
The concept of Smart Village is the recent development in Panchayat Raj System in A.P inaugurated by the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh Nara Chandrababu Naidu in 2015. Andhra Pradesh is committed to achieve holistic, inclusive and sustainable development of the state. The state has a vision “Swarnaandhra Vision 2029” to be a developed State and to be among the best three states in the country. To realize this vision, the government has adopted the mission based approach to create the social and economic infrastructure; has initiated campaigns to create awareness seeking participation of the stakeholders.

A ‘Smart Village / Ward’ displays sustainable and inclusive development with all sections of its community enjoying a high standard of living. This is achieved when the village/ward excels in the following indicators :

1. Every household has vibrant livelihood opportunities and or micro-enterprise.
2. Home for all – with access to toilet, safe- drinking water, and power.
3. Open defecation free.
4. 100% institutional deliveries.
5. No maternal deaths.
6. No infant deaths within one year of birth.
7. Malnutrition free (children below 5 years of age).
8. Zero school drop outs of boys and girls up to 12th class.
9. No girl-child marriages (girls below 18 years of age).
10. Functional toilet, portable water, electricity available in Anganwadi Centres, School, health centre, GP Building / ward.
11. Gram Sabha / Ward Sabha held four times a year with 2/3rd attendance.
12. Every village household has a functional bank account/Prime Minister Jan Dhan Bank Account.
13. Every farm has soil health card and diversification with livestock, trees, etc.
14. Gram Panchayat / Ward has it own dynamic development plan prepared by community participation.
15. The Village has green trees all over its geographic boundaries.
16. The Village has functional water conservation and harvesting structure.
17. The Village has functional grievance redressal system.
18. The Village has functional Village Information Centre, Village Computer Lab, and Mee-Seva Centre. .
19. The Village has telecom/intemet connectivity.
20. The Village has functional solid/liquid waste management system.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Rural Local Government.
Answer:
Rural Local Governments or Panchayati Raj institutions in India, signifies the system of Rural Local Governments. They serve as the backbone of India’s political culture. These institutions are of three types, popularly known as three tier system.

1. Gram Panchayats
2. Mandal Parishads and
3. Zilla Parishads .

Question 2.
The Constitution (Seventy Third Amendments) Act, 1992.
Answer:
The Union Government headed by the Prime Minister P. V Narasimha Rao strongly felt the need for immediate grant for constitutional status to the panchayat raj institutions. It introduced a bill to that effect in the Parliament in September 1991. After the bill was reffered to a joint select committee in July 1992. The bills was accepted by the Parliament and the same reffered to the State Legislatures for their approval. It become an act in the name of Seventy Third Amendment Act, 1992.

Question 3.
Gram Sabha.
Answer:
There will be a Gram Sabha in every Panchayat. it comprises all the adult citizens who have been entitled to vote. It meets at least twice a year. It discusses and approves the administrative and audit reports. It identifies the beneficiaries of development schemes. It takes steps for mobilizing voluntary labour for community welfare programmes. The Union Government directed the state governments to make arrangements for convening Gram Sabha on April 14 of every year. (Second one in the month of October).

Question 4.
Zilla Parishad.
Answer:
Zilla Parishad is the upper tier of the Panchayat Raj System. There will be a Zill Parishad in every district, zilla Parishad is the superior local body at the district level and has the corporate status.
Zilla Parishad comprises six organs, namely;

• Zilla Parishad
• Zilla Parishad Chairman
• Zilla mahasabha
• Chief Executive Officer
• Standing Committees and
• District Collector

Question 5.
M.P.D.O. [Mar. 18, 16]
Answer:
Mandal Parishad Development Officer (MPDO) is the administrative head of Mandal Parishad the plays a crucial role in the administrative affairs of the Mandal Parishad. He prepares the agenda of the parishad meetings and participates in the meeting and renders advice to the members on several matters of the Mandal Parishad. He prepares the annual budget of the Mandal Parishad. He takes steps for the effective working of the Mandal Parishad.

Question 6.
Mandal Parishad.
Answer:
Mandal Parishad is the intermediate tier in the Panchayat Raj System. It is set up according to the statutes of state Government.
Every Mandal Parishad comprises four organs namely

1. Mandal Parishad
2. Mandal Parishad President
3. Mandal Parishad Development Officer and
4. Mandal Mahasabha

Question 7.
Zilla Mahasabha.
Answer:
There will be a Zilla Mahasabha in every Zilla Parishad. It comprises a chairman and some other members of Zilla Parishad. It serves as an advisory body to the Zilla Parishad.

The Zilla Parishad Chairman presides over its meetings in ex-officio capacity. It performs three important functions namely.

1. Examining the annual budget and audit reports of Zilla Parishad.
2. Administrative report of the previous year..
3. Other matters of Zilla Parishad.

Question 8.
Zilla Parishad Standing Committees.
Answer:
There are seven standing committees in Zilla Parishad. They render advice to the Zilla Parishad on several matters like planning, finance, agriculture, rural development, women social welfare, education, health etc. The Chief Executive Officer prepares the agenda of the meeting and decides the venture of the standing committees on the advice of Zilla Parishad Chairman. The District collector participates in Zilla Parishad and standing committees meetings as a permanent invitee.

Question 9.
Zilla Parishad Chief Executive Officer.
Answer:
There will be a Chief Executive Officer in every Zilla Parishad. He is appointed by the state government and responsible to the State Government and Zilla Parishad in exercise of his powers and functions. He serves as the administrative head of Zilla Parishad.

He plays a key role in preparing the annual budget and agenda for the general meetings of the Zilla Parishad in consultation with Zill Parishad Chairman. He will have administrative control over the personnel, assets and records of the zilla parishad. He takes necessary steps for implementing the decisions of zilla parishad, zilla mahasabha and standing committees.

Question 10.
Municipal Council.
Answer:
Municipal council is the deliberative body of the Municipality. It consists of some i) Elected ii) co-opted and iii) ex-officio members. Registered voters in the municipal area elect the first category of members. They are called councillors. The elected members will in turn elect the second category of members. They are called co-opted members. The District collector and the municipal commissioner; the members of the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly of the area concerned are called as the ex-officio members. Normally the. Council meets once in a month. Municipal council considers the matters relating to the Municipality.

Question 11.
Nagar Panchay at.
Answer:
Nagar Panchayats are created for transitional areas (the area which is fast changing from a rural to an urban area) or for a very small urban area. For this purpose, several factors are taken into consideration; the density of the population therein, the revenue generated for local administration, the percentage of employment in non-agricultural activities, the economic important of the area and some others.

Question 12.
Notified Area Committee.
Answer:
This is constituted either for a fast developing town or an area not fulfilling the conditions for the creation of Municipality. As it is created through a special notification of the state government, it is known as notified areas committee, It does not possess statutory position. It will have a chairman and some members who are nominated by the state government. Its functions are more or less same as that of a municipality.

Question 13.
Cantonment Boards.
Answer:
Cantonment Boards are established in India under the Cantonment Act of 1924. At present there are 62 Cantonment Boards in India. These bodies take steps for improving the conditions of civilian population and military personnel in their jurisdiction. There are three types of Cantonment Boards in India. They are created by an Act of the defense ministry. Each Board comprises some members belonging to the elected, nominated and ex-officio categories. There will be a General Officer on Command (GOC) for every Cantonment Board.

Question 14.
Town Area Committee.
Answer:
Town area Committee is setup by an act of state Legislature. It fulfils the public needs of a small town. It will have a chairman and members nominated by the state government. It performs limited functions like street lighting, drainage etc. Its authorities take steps for improving the conditions of the people living in the town area.

Question 15.
Township.
Answer:
Township is established by the public sector undertakings to provide basic civic amenities to its personnel. It has no elected members. There will be a Town Administrator for every township. He is appointed by the concerned ministry of union government. Its services are meant not for the general public but for the personnel working in the public sector under takings.

Question 16.
Port Trust.
Answer:
Port Trust is setup in the areas where port personnel are in considerable member. It manages the affairs of ports. It takes proper steps for protecting the interests of personnel in the port areas. The union government constitutes port affairs committee. The committee comprises both nominated and elected members.

Question 17.
Collector as the District Revenue officer.
Answer:
The collector is the Chief District Revenue Officer. He in that capacity, serves as the chief guide to the farmers in the district by fulfilling several obligations. His revenue functions include various activities such as collection of land revenue, sanction of agricultural loans to farmer, rescusing the farmers in times of natural calamities by assessing the loss to incurred by them, rendering assistance to the union and state authorities in emergency relief measures etc.

Question 18.
Collector as Chief Electoral Officer in the district
Answer:
The collector acts as the chief district electoral officer. He serves as the main agent of the election commission of India for conducting elections to the various representative bodies in the district. He makes arrangements for conducting the elections in fair and impartial manner. These include preparation of electoral list and its modification, hearing public grievances on voters list, registration of new voters issue of voter IDS, appointing returning officers, assistant returning officers etc.

Question 19.
Smart Village.
Answer:
The concept of smart village is the recent development in Panchayat Raj System in A.P inaugurated by the Chief Minister of A.P to achieve holistic, inclusive and sustainable development of the state. The state has a vision “Swamandhra vision 2029″. To realize this vision, the Government has adopted the mission based approach to create the social and economic infrastructure; has adopted initiated campaigns to create awareness seeking participation of the share holder.

A smart village / ward” displays sustainable and inclusive development with all sections of its community enjoying a high standard of living.

Question 20.
Smart City.
Answer:
A “Smart city” is an urban region that is highly advanced in terms of overall infrastructure sustainable real estate, communications and market viability. It is a city where information technology is the principal infrastructure and the basis for providing essential services to residents. They benefit everybody including citizens businesses, the government and the environment.

Smart cities are those that are ables to attract investments. Good infrastructure, simple and transparent online processes that make it easy to establish an enterprise and run it efficiently are important features of an investor friendly city.

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 8th Lesson State Judiciary Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 8th Lesson State Judiciary

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain the powers and functions of the High Court.
Answer:
The constitution of India provides for a High Court for each state. But the 7^th Amendment Act, 1956 authorised the Parliament to establish a common High Court for two or more states and a Union Territory.

Articles 214 to 231 in Part-VI of constitution deals with the organization, qualifications, appointment, independence, jurisdiction, powers and procedures etc., of the High Court.

Composition :
Every High Court consists of a Chief Justice and such other judges as the President may from time to time deem it necessary to appoint.

Appointment of Judges :
The Chief Justice of High Court is appointed by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor of the concerned state. The other judges of High Court are appointed by the President with the consultation of the Chief Justice of High Court of the concerned State. In case of a common High Court for two or more States, the Governors of concerned States are cpnsulted by the President. ,

Qualifications of Judges :
A person to be appointed as a judge of High Court should possess the following qualifications.
a) He should be a citizen of India.
b) He should have held judicial office in the territory of India for atleast 10 years, or
c) He should have been an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such courts for 10 years period. However, the Constitution has not prescribed a minimum age for appointment as a judge of a High Court.

Salaries and Allowances :
The salaries, allowances, privileges, leave and pension of the judges of a High Court are determined by the Parliament from time to time. The Judge of a High Court gets a salary of ₹ 80,000/-per month and the Chief Justice gets ₹ 90,000/-. They are also entitled to get other allowances and are provided with free accommodation and other facilities like medical, car, telephone etc.

The salaries and allowances cannot be reduced except under financial emergency. The salaries and allowances are drawn from the Consolidated Fund of the State. Their retired Chief Justice and other judges are entitled to 50% of their last drawn salary as monthly pension.

Tenure :
Every Judge of a High Court including Chief Justice holds office until he attains the age of 62 years. The Judges including the Chief Justice will take oath in the presence of the Governor of the concerned State. He can resign for his office when he desire so by writing to the President to that effect.

Method of removal:
A Judge of a High Court can.be removed by the President on the grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity. The method of removal of a Judge of the High Court shall be the same as that of a Judge of the Supreme Court.

Powers and Functions of the High Court:
The following are the powers and functions of the High Court.

1) Original Jurisdiction:
Every High Court in India has original jurisdiction in regard to matters of admiralty, will, marriage, divorce, company laws, contempt of court and certain revenue cases. Every High Court is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs for the enforcement of any of the Fundamental Rights. Every High Court is empowered to settle disputes relating to election of members of Parliament and State Legislatures.

Under Article 226, the High Court is empowered to issue writs for enforcing Fundamental Rights. The High Court issue writs like Habeas-corpus, Certiorari, Mandamus, Quo-warranto and Injunction,for protecting the Fundamental Rights of the Indian Citizens.

2) Appellate Jurisdiction :
Every High Court hears appeals against the judgement rdinate courts. The appellate Jurisdiction of the High Court extends to both riminal Cases.

a) Civil Cases :
An appeal to the High Court on the civil side is either a first appeal or a second appeal. In civil cases, appeal to the High Court lies from the decision of a District Court. Appeals can also be made from the subordinate courts directly provided the dispute involves a value of more than ₹ 5,00,000/- (or) a question of fact of law. When a court subordinate to the High Court decides an appeal differing from the decision of an inferior court, a second appeal can be made to the High Court.

b) Criminal Cases :
In Criminal cases, it hears the appeals in which the accused has been sentenced to more than seven years imprisonment by the Sessions Judge. All cases involving capital punishment awarded by the Sessions Court come to High Court as appeals. Its approval is necessary for the imposition of death sentences by the District Sessions Judge. It also hears cases involving the interpretation of the Constitution.

3) Court of Record :
The State High Court acts as a Court of Record. It records all its decisions and judgements. Such records are of great significance. They carry evidentary value. They are taken as Judicial precedents to the Judges and Advocates in legal matters.

4) Power of Judicial Review :
The State High Court possesses the power of judicial review like the Supreme Court. It is the power of High Court to examine the constitutionality of legislature enactments and executive orders of both the Central and State Governments. On examination, if they are found to bp violated of the Constitution (Ultra Vires), they can be declared as illegal, unconstitutional and invalid (null and void) by the High Court. Consequently, they cannot be enforced by the government.

5) Power of Certification :
High Court certifies certain cases which can go to the Supreme Court. That appeals which go to Supreme Court depend up on the issue of a certificate by the High Court.

6) Advisory functions :
The High Court is consulted by the State Governor in the matters of appointment, posting and promotion of District Judges and in the appointment of personnel to the Judicial Services of the State (Other than District Judges). It deals with the matters of posting, promotion, grant of leave, transfers and discipline of the members of the Judicial Service of the State. It also, renders advice to the subordinate courts in the matters of public interest or of legal importance.

7) Administrative functions :
The High Court exercises certain administrative functions within its territorial jurisdictions.

• Under Article 227, every High Court has the power of supervision over all Courts and Tribunals functioning in its territorial jurisdiction except Military Courts or Tribunals in the State.
• It ensures the proper working of these courts. It exercises the power to make and issue general rules and regulations for securing the efficient working of the court.
• The High Court can transfer any case from one court to another court under Article 228 and can even transfer the case itself and decide the same.
• The High Court has the power to investigate or enquire into the records or other connected documents for any court subordinate to it.
• It appoints its administrative staff and determines the salaries and allowances and other conditions of the personnel working in subordinate courts.
• It is empowered to withdraw any case involving the interpretation of the constituion and dispose of the case itself.
• The High Court is the Highest Court of Justice in the State. All other Courts and Tribunals (except Military Courts and Tribunals) in State function under the direct supervisions and control of the State High Court.

Other functions :
a) The High Court acts as the District Court where its head quarters are located.

b) The Chief Justice of the High Court acts as the Governor on the direction of the President tentatively whenever the vacancy arises in that office.

c) The High Court can admit Public Interest Litigation like the Supreme Court of India.

Question 2.
Write an essay on the District Level Courts.
Answer:
The state judiciary consists of a High Court and a hierarchy of Subordinate Courts also known as District Courts. The District Courts play an important role in judicial administration at the district level. The courts consist of District Judge and other Judges. They fullfill their obligations at the District, Town and Major Village levels. They hear civil and criminal cases. They are subject to the authority and control of the State government in administrative matters and to the State High Court in judicial matters.
There are two types of subordinate courts in a State namely :

1. Civil Courts and
2. Criminal Courts.

1) Civil Courts :
The Civil Courts deal with civil suits regarding the matter like marriages, divorce, inheritance, business etc. There will be District Civil Courts at the District Level. The District Judge acts as its head. He exercises control and supervision over other civil courts in the district.

There are some senior civil judge courts below the rank of the district civil courts. There are some other junior civil judge courts in addition senior civil judge court. Judicial officers of subordinate courts are given here under :

1. Principal District Judge
2. Family Court Judge
3. SC & ST Act Court Judge
4. Senior Civil Court Judge
5. Junior Civil Court Judge

The Principal District Court admits the cases pertaining to an amount of Rupees 10 Lakhs and above worth of poverty and deliver the judgements. The Principal District Judge is appointed through direct as well as indirect recruitment (By promotion).

The Family Courts are presided by judicial officers of the cadre of District Judges. This court takes up cases under Hindu Marriage Act relating to divorce, ordering interim maintenance, ordering custody of children etc. In order to protect Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes rights and to implement SC & ST Act strictly, there is a court for the entire district.

There are some courts namely Senior Civil Judge Courts which deal with the cases of property worth rupees above one lakh and below 10 lakhs and deliver the judgements.

Cases pertaining to property worth below one lakh will be taken up by Junior Civil Judge Court and the Judgements are delivered. There are some Nyaya Panchayats, Grama Kacheries, Adalati Panchayats and so on at the lowest level in the district to deal with local legal issues.

2) Criminal Courts :
The Sessions Court is the highest criminal court in the district. The Sessions court acts as the superior court at the district level in handling the criminal matters. The Sessions Judge delivers judgements according to the provisions mentioned in the Indian penal code and the criminal procedure code. The following judges deal with at the district level.
They are :

1. District Sessions Judge
2. Senior Assistant Sessions Judge
3. Junior Civil Judge
4. Special Judicial Magistrate

The Principal District Judge will act as District Sessions Judge, who deals with the cases relating to murder and motor vehicles act violation cases and delivers the judgement and imposes life imprisonment or death sentences which are to be confirmed by the State High Court. The Senior Assistant Sessions Judge will impose an imprisonment of five to seven years, depending on the nature of the Case.

If there is a Junior Civil Judge Court for the entire town the court acts as a civil as well as a criminal court and take up the cases and deliver judgement and impose imprisonment below three years. There are Second Class Magistrate Courts which deliver the judgement by imposing fine up to rupees five hundred or a sentence of one year or both.

Special Judicial Magistrate Courts will be established in every town which takes up petty cases and deliver the judgement by imposing fines below ₹ 500/- and impose imprisonment below six months.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain briefly the composition of High Court.
Answer:
The Constitution of India provides for a High Court for each state. But the 7th Amendment Act, 1956 authorised the Parliament to establish a common High Court for two or more states and a Union Territory. *

Composition :
Every High Court shall consist of a Chief Justice and some other Judges. The President of India may appoint them from time to time. Besides, the President has the power to appoint Additional Judges for a temporary period not exceeding two years as an acting Judge, where a permanent Judge of a High Court is temporarily absent or unable to perform his duties.

Such judges hold office until the permanent Judge resumes his office. The number of Judges varies from 5 in Gauhati High Court to 48 in the Allahabad High Court. Our Constitution does not specify the exact strength of High Court judges and leaves it to the discretion of the President. Accordingly, the President determines the strength of a High Court from time to time depending upon its workload.

Question 2.
Write any two powers and functions of the State High Court. [Mar. 18, 16]
Answer:
The following are the two powers and functions of the High Court.
1) Original Jurisdiction:
Every High Court in India has original jurisdiction in regard to matters of admiralty, will, marriage, divorce, company laws, contempt of court and certain revenue cases. Every High Court is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs for the enforcement of any of the Fundamental Rights. Every High Court is empowered to settle disputes relating to election of members of Parliament and State Legislatures. The High Courts of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras possess original jurisdiction in Civil as well as Criminal cases arising within the presidency towns.

They are authorized to hear Civil Cases involving property of the value of ₹ 20,000/- or more. They enjoy exclusive privileges and authority in this regard. In fact this power of High Court was m vogue before independence. It has been retained in the new Constitution. The other High Courts also enjoy the same jurisdiction as was available to them before independence.

Under Article 226, the High Courts is empowered to issue writs for enforcing Fundamental Rights. The High Court issue writs like Habeas-corpus, Certiorari, Mandamus, Quo-warranto and Injunction for protecting the Fundamental Rights of the India Citizens.

2) Appellate Jurisdiction :
Every High Court hears appeals against the judgement of the subordinate courts. The appellate Jurisdiction of the High Court extends to both Civil and Criminal Cases.

a) Civil Cases :
An appeal to the High Court on the civil side is either a first appeal or a second appeal. In civil cases, appeal to the High Court lies from the decision of a District Court. Appeals can also be made from the subordinate courts directly provided the dispute involves a value of more than ₹ 5,00,000/- (or) a question of fact of law. When a court subordinate to the High Court decides an appeal differing from the decision of an inferior court, a second appeal can be made to the High Court.

b) Criminal Cases :
In Criminal cases, it hears the appeals in which the accused has been sentenced to more than seven years imprisonment by the Sessions Judge. All cases involving capital punishment awarded by the Sessions Court come to High Court as appeals. Its approval is necessary for the imposition of death sentences by the District Sessions Judge. It also hears cases involving the interpretation of the Constitution.

Question 3.
Explain the Administrative functions of the High Court
Answer:
The High Court exercises certain administrative functions within its territorial jurisdictions.

1. Under Article 227, every High Court has the power of supervision over all Courts and Tribunals functioning in its territorial jurisdiction except Military Courts or Tribunals in the State.
2. It ensures the proper working of these courts. It exercises the power to make and issue general rules and regulations for securing the efficient working of the court.
3. The High Court can transfer any case from one court to another court under Article 228 and can even transfer the case itself and decide the same.
4. The High Court has the power to investigate or enquire into the records or other connected documents of any court subordinate to it.
5. It appoints its administrative staff and determines the salaries and allowances and other conditions of the personnel working in subordinate courts.
6. It is empowered to withdraw any case involving the interpretation of the Constitution and dispose of the case itself.
7. The High Court is the Highest Court of Justice in the State. All other Courts and Tribunals (except Military Courts and Tribunals) in State function under the direct supervision and control of the State High Court.

Question 4.
Explain the powers and functions of District Court.
Answer:
There will be District Civil Courts at the District Level. The District Judge acts as its head. He exercises control and supervision over other civil courts in the district.

There are some senior civil judge courts below the rank of the district civil courts. There are some other junior civil judge courts in addition senior civil judge courts. Judicial officers of subordinate courts are given here under :

1. Principal District Judge
2. Family Court Judge
3. SC & ST Act Court Judge
4. Senior Civil Court Judge
5. Junior Civil Court Judge

The Principal District Court admits the cases pertaining to an amount of Rupees 10 Lakhs and above worth of property and deliver the judgements. The Principal District Judge is appointed through direct as well as indirect recruitment (By promotion).

The Family Courts are presided by judicial officers of the cadre of District Judges. This court takes up cases under Hindu Marriage Act relating to divorce, ordering interim maintenance, ordering custody of children etc. In order to protect Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes rights and to implement SC & ST Act strictly, there is a court for the entire district. .

There are some courts namely Senior Civil Judge Courts which deal with the cases of property worth rupees above one lakh and below 10 lakhs and deliver the judgements.

Cases pertaining to property worth below one lakh will be taken up by Junior Civil Judge Court and the Judgements are delivered. There are some Nyaya Panchayats, Grama Kacheries, Adalati Panchayats and so on at the lowest level in the district to deal with local legal issues.

Question 5.
Discuss the powers and functions of State Advocate General. [Mar. 17]
Answer:
Every State in Indian Union shall have an Advocate General, an official corresponding to the Attorney-General of India. He performs similar functions for the State that of the Attorney-General of India. He is the highest law officer in the State.

Appointment:
The Advocate General is appointed by the Governor of the State under the Article 165 of the Constitution. A person to be appointed as Advocate General must possess the following qualifications.

1. He should be a citizen of India.
2. He must have held a judicial office for ten years or an advocate of a High Court for ten years.
3. He must be a person who is qualified to be appointed a judge of a High Court.

Tenure and Removal :
The Constitution of India did not mention the tenture of Advocate General. Further, the Constitution does not contain the procedure and grounds for his removal. He holds office during the pleasure of the Governor. He may be removed by the Governor at any time. He may also quit his office by submitting his resignation to the Governor. Conventionally, he resigns when the government resigns or is replaced, as he is appointed on the advice of the government.

Salary :
His remuneration is not fixed by the Constitution. He receives such remuneration as the Governor may decide from time to time.

Powers and functions :
As the highest law officer of the State Government, he exercises the following powers and functions.

• He advises the State Government upon such legal matters which are referred to him by the Governor.
• He performs such other duties of a legal character that are assigned to him by the Governor.
• He discharges the functions and conferred on him by the Constitution.
• He appeared before any court of law within the State.
• He has a right to speak and to take part as member in the proceedings of the house (s) but no right to vote.
• He can also attend any of the Standing Committee meetings of State Legislature.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Appointment of High Court Judges. [Mar. 18, 17]
Answer:
The Chief Justice of High Court is appointed by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor of the concerned State. The other judges of High Court are appointed by the President with the consultation of the Chief Justice of High Court of the concerned State. In case of a common High Court for two or more States, the Governors of concerned States are consulted by the President.

Question 2.
Qualifications of High Court Judges. [Mar. 16]
Answer:
A person to be appointed as judge of High Court should possess the following qualifications.

a) He should be a citizen of India.
b) He should have held a judicial office in the territory of India at least 10 years, or
c) He should have been an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such courts for 10. years period. However, the constitution has not prescribed a minimum age for appointment as a judge of a High Court.

Question 3.
High Court as a Court of Record.
Answer:
The State High Court acts as a court of Record. It records all its decisions and judgements. Such records are of great significance. They carry evidentary value. They are taken as Judicial precedents to the judges and Advocates in legal matters.

Question 4.
Advisory functions of High Court.
Answer:
The High Court is consulted by the State Governor in the matters of appointment, posting and promotion of District Judges and in the appointment of personnel to the Judicial Services of the State (Other than District Judges). It deals with the matters of posting, promotion, grant of leave, transfers and discipline of the members of the Judicial Service of the State. It also renders advice to the subordinate courts in the matters of public interest or of legal importance.

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 6th Lesson State Executive Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 6th Lesson State Executive

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the powers and functions of the Governor. [Mar. 18]
Answer:
The Governor is the constitutional head of the state government. Article 153 of the Indian constitution provides for the office of the governor in the states. The administration of a state is carried on in the name of the governor

Appointment:
The president appoints the governor on the advice of the Prime Minister. In this Contest, the president generally follows two conventions which are mentioned below for the appointment of the governor.

1. Consulting the Chief Minister of the State Concerned.
2. Choosing an eminent person not belonging to the state concerned.

Qualifications :
Article 157 of our constitution lays down the following qualifications for the appointment of a person as a governor.

1. He shall be a citizen of India.
2. He should have completed the age of 35 years.
3. He should not hold any office of profit.
4. He should not be a member of either union or state legislature.
5. He should not be an insolvent declared by any court of Law.

Pay and Allowances :
The governor is entitled to receive a monthly salary of ₹ 1,10,000/-. He resides in official rent-free building “Raj Bhavan”. Besides, he is entitled to many other allowances and privileges.

Oath of Office :
The Chief Justice of the state High Court administers the oath of office to the governor.

Tenure :
The Governor holds office as a convention for a term of five years. However, He holds office during the pleasure of the president.

Powers and Functions of the Governor:
The Governor exercises six important powers and functions. They are explained as follows.

1) Legislative Powers and Functions :
Article 163 describe that the Governor is an intregral part of the Stage Legislature. In that capacity he exercises certain powers and performs functions related to the State Legislature.

1. The Governor inaugurates the first sessions of the State Legislative Assembly after the general elections are over.
2. He also addressing the first session of State Legislative Assembly every year i.e. budget session.
3. He appoints Pro-tern Speaker of the State Legislative Assembly.
4. He summons and prorogues the sessions of the two Houses of the State Legislature.
5. He addresses the Members of the state Legislature and sends messages in relation to the state legislature.
6. The Governor gives his assent to the bills passed by the state Legislature.
7. He may return a bill sent by the state Legislature for its reconsideration.
8. He dissolves the State Legislative Assembly when he feels no party is in a position to form a stable and viable Government and the advice of the Chief Minister.
9. He may promulgate Ordinances to meet an emergency which require immediate action during the recess of the State Legislature.
10. He nominates members of Anglo-indian community to the Legislative Assembly of the state if he feels that community is not represented in the house!
11. The Governor nominates 1/6 of the total members of the State Legislative Council.

2) Executive powers and functions:
Article 154 of our constitution vests the governor with the executive powers of the state. The governor exercises these powers either directly of through officers subordinate to him. The governor has the following executive powers.

1. The Governor appoints, the Chief Minister and the members of the Council of Ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister.
2. He allocates Portfolios among the ministers and reshuffles their portfolios.
3. He removes the Ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister.
4. He appoints the Vice-Chancellors of the Universities in the State. He acts as the Chancellor of the universities.
5. He appoints the Chief Secretary and Advocate General of the State Government.
6. He appoints the Chairmen and other members of the State Commissions such as a) State Public Service Commission, b) State Election Commission, c) Official Language Commission, d) Commission for Women, e) Minorities Commission, f) Backward Classes Commission and g) SC & ST Commission.
7. He regulates the postings and transfers of the All India Services personnel working in the state.

3) Judicial Powers and Functions :
The Governor also exercises the following judicial powers and functions.

1. The Governor renders advice to the President of India in the appointment of Chief Justice and other judges of the High Court of the State.
2. The Governor appoints the Advocate General of the State.
3. He makes appointments, postings and promotions of the District Judges in consultation with the Chief Justice of High Court of the State.
4. He also appoints persons to the judicial services of the state (Other than the district courts) in consultation with the Chief Justice of High Court and State Public Service Commission.
5. He can grant pardon, retrieve, remit and commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law of the concerned state.

4) Financial Powers and Functions :
The Governor will have the following powers and functions of financial nature.

1. The Governor sees that the Annual Financial Statement,(i.e. Budget) is laid before the State Legislature.
2. No Money bill shall be introduced in the prior permission of the Governor.
3. No Demand for Grant can be made except on his recommendation.
4. He maintains the Contingency Fund of the State. He can make advances out of the Contingency Fund to meet any unforeseen expenditure.
5. He constitutes a Finance Commission for every five years to review the financial position of village Panchayats and Municipalities.
6. He sees that reports of various financial committees are laid before the State Legislature.

5) Miscellaneous Powers and Functions :
The Governor receives the Annual Report of the State Public Service Commission and passes it on to the Council of Ministers for comments. Thereafter, he passes on the report on these comments to the Speaker of the Assembly for placing it before the legislature. He receives the report of the Auditor-General regarding income and expenditure made by different departments working under the State Government. On behalf of the President, he runs the administration as the real head of the state through the enforcement of law and policies during the period of President’s Rule.

6) Discretionary Powers:
Under Article 163 (1) of the constitutions the Governor has some discretionary powers which are discharged by him. His decisions in this regard are final, These are mentioned as below.

1. Playing a decisive role in appointing the new Chief Minister in a situation when no single party has a clear majority in the state Legislative Assembly.
2. Dismissing a Minister When it refuses to resign even after losing majority support in the House.
3. Dissolution of the Assembly on the advice of the Chief Minister who lost the majority members support.
4. Rendering advice to the President for the imposition of the President’s Rule in the State.
5. Reserving a Bill for the consideration and approval of the President.
6. Seeking instructions from the president before promulgating ordinance on some important matters.
7. Sending back a bill passed by the state legislature for its reconsideration, .except money bills.

Question 2.
Explain the powers and Functions of the Chief Minister.
Answer:
Articles 163 and 164 of our constitution deal with the office of the chief minister. The chief minister is the real executive head of the State Government. He plays a decisive role and occupies a key position in the State Government.

Appointment :
The Chief Minister is appointed by the governor under article 164. After general elections, the governor normally invites the leader of the majority party in the Legislative Assembly to form the government and appoints him as the Chief Minister.

Powers and Functions of Chief Minister:
The Chief Minister has high authority and heavy responsibility in discharging his powers and related functions. His powers and functions are related to the following heads.

i) Formation of the Ministry :
The first and foremost responsibility of the Chief Minister is the formation of Ministry of his choice. The CM has a free hand in the selection and appointment of Ministers. He chooses some members of his party (or coalition partners in the case of a coalition) and recommends their names to the Governor to be appointed as Ministers. He advises the Governor to allocate portfolios among the Ministers.

ii) Leader of the State Council of Ministers :
The Chief Minister is the head of the Council of Ministers. As such he occupies a position of exceptional authority. He is the Chairman of the State Council of Ministers. The Chief Minister decides the time, venue and the agenda of Gabinet meetings. The CM presides over such meetings, discussions are carried under his direction. He guides, directs, controls and co-ordinates the activities of the Ministers.

iii) Link between the Governor and the State Council of Ministers:
The Chief Minister is the principal channel of communication between the Governor and the State Council of Ministers. As part of his Constitutional duty he communicates all the administrative decisions and legislative proposals of the State Council of Ministers to the Governor. It is his responsibility to furnish any information related to the actives of the Ministers as the Governor may call for. No minister shall meet the Governor without the consent of the Chief Minister.

iv) Leader of the Legislative Assembly:
As the Chief Minister enjoys the confidence and support of the majority Legislators he acts as the leader of the Assembly. In that capacity he extends complete co-operation to the Presiding Officers for the smooth conduct of the Business of the House. He ensures discipline .of his party members in the Assembly. The CM helps other Ministers in case they are unable to satisfy the House with their replies or when a situation goes out of control in the Assembly. He announces the Government policies on the floor of the Legislative Assembly.

v) Chief Spokes Person :
The Chief Minister is the chief spokesperson of the Government. He announces the major policies and programs of the State Government. His statements in and outside of the State Legislature will carry much legitimacy and influence in the State. The Members in the State Legislature demand for clarification and statements on particular issues of the State from the Cheif Minister. So, he maintains much restrain without making controversial statements.

vi) Leader of the party in power:
The Chief Minister is the leader of party in power at the State level, he participates in the meetings organized by his party. He informs the party members about the policies and programs initiated by the State Government to fulfill the poll promises of his party. He seeks the co-operation and support of the party members for the effective implementation of the government policies and successful function pf the Government. He brings co-ordination between the party in power and the Government.

If he happens to be the President or the General Secretary of the party he gains control over his party. He utilizes the services of the senior, experienced and prominent party leaders in improving the image and efficiency of the State Government. He sees that his party members do not make controversial and embarrassing comments that may land the executive in the troubled waters. –

vii) Leader of the people :
He tries to know and understand the needs and interests, aspirations and expectations of the people in the State. For this purpose he frequently makes visits to different places and addresses the public gatherings. He invites petitions from the people and patiently listens to them. He informs the people about the welfare measures and developmental programs taken up by the Government. He motivates the people to take active participation in the implementation of various welfare schemes. He undertakes relief „ measures and consoles the people affected during the natural calamities. He maintains good rapport with the people and wins their confidence and trust, as their prominent leader of the people.

viii) Chief Advisor to the Governor :
It is the Constitutional obligation of the CM to render advice to the Governor on all matter of the State Government. His advice is binding over the Governor in the matter of appointment of ministers, allocation of portfolios, reshuffling of the Ministry and accepting the resignation of Ministers. It is a rate privilege and opportunity of the Chief Minister to advise the Governor to dissolve the State Legislative Assembly when he still has majority support of the members in the Assembly.

ix) Cordial relations with the Union Government:
The Chief Minister, being the real head of the. State administration, has the main responsibility of maintaining harmonious relations with the Union Government. He should develop cordial and amicable relations with the Prime Minister and the Union Ministers. He will have to interaction with several Union Ministers particularly of Home, Finance, Industry, Agriculture, Education, and Rural Development etc.

How much Union support a State gets in the form of financial grants to the centrally sponsored schemes depend on the Chief Minister’s influence on and the rapport with the Union Ministers. The State’s representation in the Union Cabinet also influences the quantum and quality of the support to the State.

x) Relations with Party in Opposition :
The Chief Minister maintains good relations with the Presidents, Floor Leaders, and MLAs of the Opposition Parties. Good contacts, healthy relations and cordial approach the Chief Minister in securing constructive co-operation from the Opposition. He takes the Opposition parties into confidence on crucial issues of the State. He organizes all party meetings and takes delegation of all parties to the Union Government for communicating issues of the state.

xi) Related to the Constitution:
The Indian Constitution confers all the powers of real executive on the Chief Minister. He owes his position to the Constitution. He has to exercise his authority and discharge his responsibilities in accordance with the provisions of Constitution. He must uphold the democratic norms and Constitutional principles in running the State administration.

Question 3.
Describe the powers and functions of the State Council of Ministers.
Answer:
Article 163(1) of the Indian Constitution provides for the State Council Ministers with the Chief Minister at its head, to aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his powers and in running the State administration.

Composition :
The State Council of Ministers is generally a three-tier body. It consisting of.
1. Cabinet Ministers 2. Ministers of State and 3. Deputy Ministers. There will be some only Parliamentary Secretaries in some states on rare occasions. It constitutes the fourth wing of the hierarchy of the Council of Ministers.

Qualifications :

1. They should be members of either House of the Legislature (if it is bi-cameral)
2. If the Ministers are not the members of the State Legislature, they should be elected to the State Legislature within six months from the date of assuming their office. Otherwise they cease to hold their office.
3. They must possess such other qualifications as*is determined by the Parliament from time to time.

Appointment:
All the Ministers are appointed by the governor (Article 164) on the advice and recommendation of the chief minister.

Powers and Functions of the Council of Ministers :
i) Policy Formulation :
The State Council of Ministers formulates policies suitable for the progress of the people and development of the State. It is an intellectual and laborious process. The Cabinet Ministers meet frequently under the leadership of the Chief Minister, discuss thoroughly various matters of the State adihinistration and finalize the policies along with the necessary decisions.

ii) Enactment of Laws :
The State Council of Ministers takes Legislative initiation on different matters of State Government. It is the Council Ministers that drafts and finalizes the public Bill and pilots them in the State Legislature at different stages in order to get them approved by the Legislature. Once the bills are approved by the Legislature, the Council of Ministers advises the Governor to assent them so that they become laws. The Council of Ministers may propose amendment to the existing laws or enactment Of new laws for the administrative convenience.

iii) Provision of Good Administration :
The State Council of Ministers i.e., the real executive is voted to power to provide good administration and promote the well-being of the .people of the State. The chief responsibility of the Council of Ministers is running the administration in accordance with the Constitutional cardinals and democratic doctrines. The.total administrative work is divided into different ministries. Each minister has one or more departments under his control and is responsible for the effective and the transparent administration of such departments. It formulates and implements different developmental programs and welfare schemes.

iv) Co-ordination of Governmental Activities :
The State Council of Ministers is responsible and the authority for coordinating the functions of different government departments. Without proper co-ordination among the departments the success of the State administration cannot be ensured. The Chief Minister guides and takes lead in coordinating the cabinet discussions and government activities.

v) Appointment Power:
The State Council of Ministers plays a key role in all important appointments to various offices in the State. It makes all appointments in the name of the Governor to various higher offices like the Chief secretary. Advocate General, D.G.R Principal Secretaries and other Heads of the Departments etc.

vi) Financial Fucntions :
The State Council of Ministers wields control over the Finances of the State. It determines fiscal policy and deals with the matters concerning the State Revenue, Expenditure, Investment and Audit of Accounts. It prepares the budget proposals of the State Government and places it before the State Legislature for its consideration and approval. It manages the Finances of the State according to the policy and budget as approved by the Legislature. Its role is that of a trustee.

vii) Miscellaneous Functions :
The State Council of Ministers finalizes strategies for the overall development of the State in the sphere of Agriculture, Irrigation, Industry, Transport, Education, Planning, IT etc. It proclaims ordinances in the name of the Governor during the recess of the State Legislature.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain any three Powers and Functions of the Governor.
Answer:
1) Legislative Powers and Functions :
Article 168 describes that the Governor is an intregral part of the State Legislature. In that capacity he exercises certain powers and performs functions related to the State Legislature.

1. The Governor inaugurates the first sessions of the State Legislative Assembly after the general elections are over.
2. He also addressing the first session of State Legislative Assembly every year i.e. budget session.
3. He appoints Pro-tem Speaker of the State Legislative Assembly.
4. He summons and prorogues the sessions of the two houses of the State Legislature.
5. He addresses the Members of the state legislature and sends messages in relation to the state legislature.
6. The Governor gives his assent to the bills passed by the State Legislature.
7. He may return a bill sent by the State Legislature for its reconsideration.
8. He dissolves the State Legislative Assembly when he feels no party is in a position to form a stable and viable Government and the advice of the Chief Minister.
9. He may promulgate Ordinances to meet an emergency which require immediate action during the recess of the State Legislature.
10. He nominates members of Anglo-Indian community to the Legislative Assembly of the state if he feels that community is not represented in the house.
11. The Governor nominates 1/6 of the total members of the State Legislative Council.

2) Executive Powers and Functions:
The Governor has the following executive powers.

1. The Governor appoints, the Chief Minister and the members of the Council of Ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister.
2. He allocates Portfolios among the ministers and reshuffles their portfolios.
3. He removes the Ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister.
4. He appoints the Vice-Chancellors of the Universities in the State. He acts as the Chancellor of the universities.
5. He appoints the Chief Secretary and Advocate General of the State Government.
6. He appoints the Chairmen and other members of the State Commissions such as a) State Public Service Commission, b) State Election Commission, c) Official Language Commission, d) Commission for Women, e) Minorities Commission, f) Backward Classes Commission and g) SC & ST Commission.
7. He regulates the postings and transfers of the All India Services personal working in the state.

3) Judicial Powers and Functions :
The Governor also exercises the following judicial powers and functions.

1. The Governor renders advice to the President of India in the appointment of Chief Justice and other judges of the High Court of the State.
2. The Governor appoints the Advocate General of the State.
3. He makes appointments, postings and promotions of the District Judges in consultation with the Chief Justice of High Court of the State.
4. He also appoints persons to the judicial services of the state (other than the district courts) in consultation with the Chief Justice of High court and State Public Service Commission.
5. He can grant pardon; retrieve, remit and commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law of the concerned state.

Question 2.
What are the Discretionary Functions of the Governor?
Answer:
Under Article 163(1) of the constitution the governor has been armed with certain discretionary powers. In the exercise of his discretionary powers, the governor is not bound by the advice of his ministers or even to seek such advice. His actions shall not be called into question on the ground that he ought or ought not to have acted in his discretion.

The discretionary powers of governor are mentioned below.

1. Playing a decisive role in appointing the new Chief Minister in a situation when single party has a clear majority in the State Legislative Assembly.
2. Dismissing a Ministry when it refuses to resign even after losing majority support in the House.
3. Dissolution of the Assembly on the advice of the Chief Minister who lost the majority members support.
4. Rendering advice to the President for the imposition of the President’s Rule in the State.
5. Reserving a Bill for the consideration and approval of the President.
6. Seeking instructions from the President before promulgating ordinance on some important matters.
7. Sending back a bill passed by the state legislature for its reconsideration, except money bills.
8. Seeking information from the Chief Minister with regard to the administrative and legislative matters of the State.

Question 3.
What are the Differences between the Governor of a State and the President of India?
Answer:

Question 4.
What is the position and significance of the Governor in the State?
Answer:
The Constitution of India provides for the Parliamentary System of Government both at Centre and in the States. While the Governor is only a nominal executive, the real executive constitutes the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister. The Constitution has assigned a dual role to the office of a Governor in the Indian federal system. He is the Constitutional head of the State Government as well as the representative of the Union Government.

As the Constitutional head of the state government, he must positively contribute to the progress and development of the State. He has to see that the political and administrative heads of the State Government strive for the promotion of the interests of the people. The Governor has to ensure that the ministers and bureaucrats must observe the constitutional and democratic norms. It is the responsibility of the Governor to see that the affairs of the government are carried on in accordance with Constitutional provisions. The Governor has to maintain close and harmonious relations with the real executive heads of the Union and State Governments.

The Governor is not supposed to run a parallel government in the State. His role is that of a good counselor, mediator and arbitrator than an active politician. He shall abide by the advice of the State Council of Ministers. This does not mean that he should accept all proposals immediately. He can reserve Bills for reconsideration and prevent hasty decisions. Great caution and restrainment must be exercised while reporting to the President under Article 356. Otherwise, his image as guardian of the State Government would tarnished. He should keep himself away from active politics. If he identifies himself with a political party, he cannot inspire the total trust of the people.

Being the representative of the Centre, the Governor has the responsibility of informing through reports whether the State is complying with the directives issued by the Union from time to time. It is his constitutional obligation to inform the Union whether the constitutional machinery is functioning smoothly in the state or not.

The Centre-State relations largely depend upon the action and performance of the Governor. He can make or mar the healthy relations between the Union and the State. The Constitution has given certain discretionary powers to the Governor. If the Governor makes use of these powers sparingly, judiciously and impartially, tensions between the Centre and the States would certainly be reduced. If he acts with bias and at the behest of the Central Government, the tensions between the Centre and State would undoubtedly be enhanced. The role of the Governor in the formation or dissolution of the Ministry or imposing of President’s Rule will have far reaching implications and consequences in the healthy and harmonious Centre-State relations.

Question 5.
Explain any three Powers and Functions of the Chief Minister. [Mar. 16]
Answer:
The following are the three important powers and functions of the Chief Minister.
i) Formation of the Ministry :
The first arid foremost responsibility of the Chief Minister is the formation of Ministry of his choice. The CM has a free hand in the selection and appointment of Ministers. He chooses some members of his party (or coalition partners in the case of a coalition) and recommends their names to the Governor to be appointed as Ministers. He advises the Governor to allocate portfolios among the Ministers.

ii) Leader of the State Council of Ministers :
The Chief Minister is the head of the Council of Ministers. As such he occupies a position of exceptional authority. He is the Chairman of the State Council of Ministers. The Chief Minister decides the time, venue and the agenda of Cabinet meetings. The CM presides over such meetings, discussions are carried under his direction. He guides, directs, controls and co-ordinates the activities of the Ministers.

iii) Link between the Governor and the State Council of Ministers :
The Chief Minister is the principal channel of communication between the Governor and the State Council of Ministers. As part of his Constitutional duty he communicates all the administrative decisions and legislative proposals of the State Council of Ministers to the Governor. It is his responsibility to furnish any information related to the actives of the Ministers as the Governor may call for. No minister shall meet the Governor without the consent of the Chief Minister.

Question 6.
Explain the Composition of the State Council of Ministers.
Answer:
Article 163(1) of the Indian Constitution provides for the State Council Ministers with the Chief Minister at its head, to aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his powers and in rurining the State administration.

Composition :
The State Council of Ministers is generally a three-tier body. It consisting of.
1. Cabinet Ministers 2. Ministers of State and 3. Deputy Ministers. There will be some only Parliamentary Secretaries in some States on rare occasions. It constitutes the fourth wing of the hierarchy of the Council of Ministers.

i) Cabinent Ministers :
The cabinent is a small body consisting of ministers holding the most important portfolios such as Home, Finance, Planning and Industries etc. They enjoy independence in taking and implementing decisions concerning their ministry. They attend the Cabinet meetings, concerned by the Chief Minister. Some times the Ministers of state and deputy ministers may attend the cabinet meetings, in case their presence is needed during deliberations. They meet frequently and determine the policies of the State Government under the stewardship of the Chief Minister.

ii) Ministers of State :
The Ministers of State hold portfolios of less importance compared to the Cabinent Ministers. They may be attached to the individual Cabinent Ministers or might be given independent charge of crucial departments’in the major Ministries. In such a case they enjoy independence. They are answerable directly to the Chief Minister. They are not subject to the control of Cabinet Ministers.

iii) Deputy Ministers :
The Deputy Ministers are attached to the Cabinet Ministers. They performs such functions which are assigned by the Cabinet Ministers. His role is mainly to relieve the burden of the Cabinet Minister. He assists the Cabinent Minister in the administrative and legislative affairs of the Ministry the Constitution (91st Amendment) Act 2003 fixes a ceiling on the size of the Council of Ministers. The total number of the Ministers cannot be more than 15% of the total strength of the State Legislative Assembly.

Question 7.
Point out any three Powers of the State Council of Ministers. [Mar. 17]
Answer:
The three of the following are the important powers of the state council of Ministers.
i) Policy Formulation :
The State Council of Ministers formulates policies suitable for the progress of the people and development of the State. It is an intellectual and laborious process. The Cabinent Ministers meet frequently under the leadership of the Chief Minister, discuss throughly various matters of the State administration, and finalize the policies along with the necessary decisions.

ii) Enactment of Laws :
The State Council of Ministers takes Legislative initiation on different matters of State Government. It is the Council of Ministers that drafts and finalizes the public Bills and pilots them in the State Legislature at different stages in order to get them approved by the Legislature. Once the bills are approved by the Legislature, the Council of ministers advises the Governor to assent them so that they become laws. The Council of Ministers may propose amendment to the existing laws or enactment of new laws for the administrative convenience.

iii) Provision of Good Administration :
The State Council of Ministers i.e., the real executive is voted to power to provide good administration and promote the wellbeing of the people of the State. The chief responsibility of the Council of Ministers is running the administration in accordance with the Constitutional cardinals and democratic doctrines.

The total administrative work is divided into different ministries. Each minister has one or more departments under his control and is responsible for the effective and the transparent administration of such departments. It formulates and implements different developmental programs and welfare schemes.

Question 8.
Estimate the relationship between the Chief Minister and the Governor.
Answer:
In a Parliamentary Democracy like India the real executive of the state plays a pivotal role in the state administration. The Cheif Minister as the real executive head in the State is responsible ultimately to the state electorate. The Chief Minister has also the obligation to facilitate the exercise of powers of the Governor by providing necessary information about the affairs of the administration of the State. The Governor has a right to seek any information on administrative and legislative activities of the state Council of Ministers through the Chief Minister.

However, this right does not allow permit the Governor to become a parallel centre in this state. It may be noted that the nature of the power available to the Governor is persuasive and not authoritarian. So he cannot under the grab of this right start over riding or vetoing the decisions or proposals of the state Council of Ministers.

The founding fathers of our Constitution have laid great emphasis on the need for harmonious relations between the Governor and his Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister. This was the main idea behind abandoning the proposal for an elected Governor and adopting for his nomination by the President.

The Sarkaria Commission in its report emphasized that for the proper working of the Parliamentary system there needs to be a good personnel rapport between the Governor and the Chief Minister of a State. For fostering good personnel relationship, the Sarkaria Commission suggested that the Union Government has to consult the concerned Chief Minister before appointing the Governor of the State.

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru during his speeches in the Constituent Assembly stated that the Governor should be acceptable to the Chief Minister. Both the Chief Minister and Governor must work together in mutual co-operation to promote the development of the State and safeguard the interests of the people of the State.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Qualifications of Governor. [Mar. 18]
Answer:
Article 157 of our Constitution lays down the following qualifications for the appointment of a person as a Governor.

1. He shall be a citizen of India.
2. He should have completed the age of 35 years.
3. He should not be a member of either house of Parliament or state legislature.
4. He should not hold any other office of profit.
5. He should not be an insolvent declared by any court of law.

Question 2.
Special responsibilities of the Governor. [Mar. 17]
Answer:
The Governor has certain special responsibilities to discharge according to the directives issued by the President under Articles 371 (Z) 371 (A) (1) b, 371 (C) in case special responsibility through the Governor is to constilt the Council of Ministers the final decision shall be in his individual judgement which no court can question.

The Governor of Assom. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Wougaland, Manipur and Sikkim have special responsibility on specific matters related to their respective states. For example : 1. The Governor of Assom shall in his discretion determine the amount payable by the state of Assom to district council as the royalty accruing from licences of minerals decides the amount of money received from mineral resources and which has to be allocated to the District Council.

Question 3.
State Executive. [Mar. 18]
Answer:
Articles 153 to 167 deal with the matters of the state executive. The state executive consists of (a) the Governor (b) the Chief Minister and (c) Members of the State Council of Ministers. In our Parliamentary system Governor is the titular or constitutional head of the state. The Chief Minister is the real executive head of the Government. The Chief Minister and the Ministers being represents the people.

Question 4.
Immunities of the Governor.
Answer:
Our Constitution provides certain legal Immunities to the office of the Governor to enable him to discharge his constitutional functions in a free and fair manner, to ensure the state government works constitutionally. He shall not be held responsible for any act done or purporting to have been done in his official capacity. No criminal proceedings can be initiated against the Governor during his term of office. No proceedings for his arrest or imprisonment can be taken by any court of law.

Question 5.
Any two executive powers of the Governor.
Answer:

1. The Governor appoints, the Chief Minister and the members of the Council of Ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister.
2. He allocates portfolios among the Ministers and reshuffles their portfolios.

Question 6.
Two discretionary powers of the Governor.
Answer:

1. Playing a decisive role in appointing the new Chief Minister in a situation when no single party has a clear majority in the State Legislative Assembly.
2. Dismissing a Ministry when it refuses to resign even after losing majority support in the house.

Question 7.
The Chief Minister. [Mar. 17]
Answer:
The Chief Minister is the centre of the real executive authority at the state level. He plays a decisive role and occupies a key position in the State Government. The progress of the people and development of the state largely depends upon the Cabinet, Personality, Preservance and political stature of the Chief Minister.

Question 8.
Cabinet Ministers. [Mar. 16]
Answer:
The Cabinet is a small boy consisting of Ministers holding the most important portfolios such as Home, Finance, Planning and Industries etc. They enjoy independence in taking and implementing decisions concerning their Ministry. They attend the Cabinet meetings, concerned by the Chief Minister. Some times the Ministers of state and Deputy Ministers may attend the Cabinet meetings, incase their presence is needed during deliberations. They met frequently and determine the policies of the State Government under the Stewardship of the Chief Minister.

Question 9.
Composition of the State Council of Ministers. [Mar. 18]
Answer:
The State Council of Ministers is generally a three-tier body. It consisting of.

1. Cabinet Ministers
2. Ministers of state and
3. Deputy Ministers. There will be some only Parliamentary Secretaries in some states on rare occassions. It constitutes the fourth wing of the hierarchy of the Council of Ministers. .

Question 10.
Deputy Ministers.
Answer:
The Deputy Ministers are attached to the Cabinet Ministers. They performs such functions which are assigned by the Cabinet Ministers. His role is mainly to relieve the burden of the Cabinet Minister. He assists the Cabinet Minister in the .administrative and legislative affairs of the Ministry.

Question 11.
State Ministers.
Answer:
The Ministers of State hold portfolios of less importance compared to the Cabinet Ministers. They may be attached to the individual Cabinet Ministers or might be given independent charges of crucial departments in the major minorities. In such a case they enjoy independence. They are answerably directly to the Chief Minister. They are not subject to the control of Cabinet Ministers.

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 5th Lesson Union Judiciary Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 5th Lesson Union Judiciary

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write an essay on the Supreme Court of India.
Answer:
The Supreme Court of India is the Highest Court of Justice in India.

Part V of the Indian constitution from Articles 124 to 147 deals with the composition, Appointment, Qualifications of Judges, powers and Functions of the Supreme Court.

Article 124 provides for the establishment of the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court of India was established in New Delhi on January 26, 1950 with the inauguration of our constitution.

Composition :
The Supreme Court Consists of the Chief Justice and 30 other Judges. There may be some Ad-hoc Judges and retired Judges on temporary basis.

1) Seat of the Supreme Court:
The Head quarters of the Superme Court is situated at New Delhi. The Supreme Court ordinarily shall sits at New Delhi.

• All general cases are adjudicated by a Division Bench Comprising two or more Judges.
• Cases involving the constitutional matters are heard by a constitutional Bench consisting Five Judges.
• For considering special cases larger benches consisting of Five or more than Five Judges are constituted.

2) Appointment:
The judges are appointed by the President. While appointing the Chief Justice, the President consults the retiring Chief Justice and the Prime Minister. He appoints the remaining judges on the advice of the Chief Justice.

3) Qualification :
A judge of the Supreme Court 1) must be a citizen of India. 2) must have worked as a judge of any High Court for atleast 5 years or must have 10 years of experience as an advocate either in the Superme court or any High court or must be a legal expert in the opinion of the President.

4) Salaries :
The Chief Justice gets a monthly salary of Rs. 1,00,000/- and each other judge gets 90,000 per month. They also get allowances. Their salaries should not be reduced to their disadvantage during their term of office.

5) Term of Office :
The judges hold office till they reach 65 years of age. However, they can be removed from office by Parliament through a resolution known as impeachment before the end of their term or they may submit their resignation.

Removal:
A Judge of the Supreme Court can be removed from his position only on the grounds of proved misbehaviour or in capacity by an order of the president after on an address by the Parliament by a Majority of not less than 2/3 votes.

Immunities of Judges :
According to Article 121 of the constitution, No discussion shall take place in the Parliament with respect to the conduct of any Judge of the Supreme Court in the discharge of his duties except upon a motion of impeachment.

Powers and Functions of Supreme Court:
1) Original Jurisdiction :
According to the original Jurisdiction, the Supreme Court hears directly any dispute (a) between the Government of India and one or more States, (b) between the Government of India and any State or States on one side and one or more States on the other (c) between two or more States. The Supreme Court also decides all disputes and doubts regarding the election of the President and Vice President. It protects the Fundamental Rights guaranteed to the citizens by issuing several writs.

2) Appellate jurisdiction:
The Supreme Court is the highest Court of appeal in India. All appeals from all other courts can be heard by Supreme Court. The appellate jurisdiction extends to four types of cases namely civil, criminal, constitutional and special. But, the High Court should give certificate for appealing in the Supreme Court in the first three kinds of cases. But in special cases the certificate of High Court is not required.

3) Advisory Jurisdiction :
The Supreme Court offers it’s advice to the President on those matters of legal or public importance which are referred to him (Art. 143). It’s opinion is purely advisory and not binding on the President. The Supreme Court may refuse to give its opinion to the President. In October 1994 when Dr.S.D.Sharma, the then President of India asked the Supreme Court to give it’s advisory opinion on the Ayodhya issue, the court refused to give it’s opinion.

4) Judicial Review:
The Supreme Court has the power of Judicial Review. It examines the validity of laws passed by the legislatures or the orders issued by the Executive and declares them as ultra vires or unconstitutional if they are against the provisions of the constitution.

5) Court of Record:
The Supreme Court acts as a court of record. All the judgements and interpretations of the Supreme Court are recorded for future references. .

6) Other Powers :
The Supreme Court.

1. reviews it’s own decisions.
2. supervises the working of the State High Courts and other Subordinate Courts.
3. recruits it’s own personnel for its maintenance.
4. interprets the constitution and acts as it’s guardian.
5. initiates contempt proceedings against those who criticise or defy it’s judgements etc.

Conclusion :
From the above account it is evident that our Supreme Court unique position in the judicial system of the country.

Question 2.
Explain the Powers and Functions of the Supreme Court of India.
Answer:
The supreme Court of India is the Highest Court of Justice in India. Article 124 of the Indian constitution provides for the establishment of the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court of India was established in New Delhi on January 26, 1950. The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and 30 other Judges.

Powers and Functions of Supreme Court:
1) Original Jurisdiction :
According to the original jurisdiction, the Supreme Court hears directly any dispute

• between the Government of India and one or more States.
• between the Government of India and any State or States on one side and one or more States on the other.
• between two or more State. The Supreme Court also decides all disputes and doubts regarding the election of the President and Vice President. It protects the Fundamental Rights guaranteed to the citizens by issuing several writs.

2) Appellate Jurisdiction:
The Supreme Court is the highest Court of appeal in India. All appeals from all other courts can be heard by Supreme Court. The appellate jurisdiction extends to four types of cases namely civil, criminal, constitutional and special. But, the High Court should give certificate for appealing in the Supreme Court in the first three kinds of cases. But in special cases the certificate of High Court is not required.

3) Advisory Jurisdiction :
The Supreme Court offers it’s advice to the President on those matters of legal or public importance which are referred to him (Art. 143). It’s opinion is purely advisory and not binding on the President. The Supreme Court may refuse to give its opinion to the President. In October, 1994 when Dr. S.D. Sharma, the then President of India asked the Supreme Court to give it’s advisory opinion on the Ayodhya issue, the court refused to give it’s opinion.

4) Judicial Review:
The Supreme Court has the power of Judicial Review. It examines the validity of laws passed by the legislatures or the orders issued by the Executive and declares them as ultravires or unconstitutional if they are against the provisions of the constitution.

5) Court of Record:
The Supreme Court acts as a court of record. All the judgements and interpretations of the Supreme Court are recorded for future references.

6) Other Powers :
The Supreme Court.

1. reviews it’s own decisions.
2. supervises the working of the State High Courts and other Subordinate Courts.
3. recruits its own personnel for its maintenance.
4. Interprets the constitution and acts as it’s guardian.
5. initiates contempt proceedings against those who criticise defy it’s judgements etc.-

7) Review of Judgement :
The Supreme court is empowered to review its own Judgements. It can uphold, modify or nullify its previous judgements. For instance it, while pronouncing its judgement in Golak nathcase vs. Punjab state case in 1967, declared the Parliament has no powers sb amend any of the provisions of fundamental rights of Indian Citizens.

Conclusion :
From the above account it is evident that our Supreme Court enjoys unique position.

Question 3.
Describe Judicial Review.
Answer:
Judicial Review is perhaps the most important power of the Supreme Court. The purpose of Judicial Review is to maintain the supremacy of the Constitution. There is no explicit mention of Judicial Review in the Indian Constitution. The higher courts derive this power from the provisions of Article 13 of the Constitution.

This Article empowers the Supreme Court to validate those laws and executive orders which infringe upon the Fundamental Rights. The makers of our constitution adopted this concept from the American Constitution keeping in view the written nature of the Indian Constitution and federal character of Indian polity.

Judicial Review means the power of the Supreme. Court or High Courts to examine the Constitutional validity of the legislative enactments and executive actions of both Central and State Governments and to declare them ‘null and void’ if found repugnant, of the provisions of the Constitution. As M.V Pylee stated, “Judicial Review is the competence of a court of law to declare the Constitutionality or otherwise of a legislative enactment”.

Article 13 declares all laws that are inconsistent with or direspectful of the fundamental rights, or void to the extent of their inconsistency. Hence, the Supreme Court being responsible for protecting fundamental rights, can declare any legislative act or executive decision that is inconsistent with provisions on fundamental rights as ultra vires or null and void, meaning unconstitutional and inapplicable. Besides, in case of federal relations, the Supreme Court can avail this power if a law is inconsistent with the provisions concerning the distribution of powers between the governments as laid down by the Constitution.

In this context the Supreme Court and High courts reviews legislations on the grounds that (a) they violate fundamental rights or (b) they violate the federal distribution of powers. The Supreme Court’s power of Judicial Review extends to the

• Laws passed by the union and state legislatures,
• Executive actions of the union and states,
• Decisions of the public sector undertakings and
• Constitutional Amendments. The Supreme Court for the first time utilized this power in 1950 itself by declaring Section 14 of the Preventive Detention Act as unconstitutional.

It may be noted that the Supreme Court of India is prominent in the world by exercising the power to determine the validity of the Constitutional Amendment Acts. However, Judicial Review is inevitable due to the following reasons.

1. The Supreme Court has to uphold the supremacy of the Constitution.
2. It has to maintain the federal equilibrium.
3. It has to protect the fundamentals rights of the citizens.

Apart from the above, the power of Judicial Review is a resultant of the position of the Supreme Court as the; guardian of the Constitution. As such it has the final say in interpretation of the Constitution and by such an interpretation, the Supreme Court has extended its power of Judicial Review to almost all the provisions of the Constitution.

Question 4.
What is Judicial Activism? What are its merits and demerits?
Answer:
Generally, Judicial Activism is construed to be the over willingness of the judiciary to jump into the arena of executive or legislative functions. Judicial Activism, in fact, is not a distinctly separate concept from usual judicial activities. In general parlance, the expression “activism” means “being active”, “doing things with decision” and the expression “activist” should mean “one who favours intensified activities”. In this sense every judge is an activist.

Judicial Activism is a policy making in competition with policy making by legislature and executive. The essence of true Judicial Activism is rendering of decisions which are in tune with the temper and tempo of the times. The nature of Judicial Activisim is that it furthers the cause of social change or articulates concepts like liberty, equality or justice.

Judiciary which is an institution that traditionally confined to responding to cases brought before it, began considering many cases merely on the basis of Newspaper reports and postal complaints received by the court. But most of the cases of Judicial Activism have occurred through Public Interest Litigatiqn in the sphere of Public Health, Child Labour, Environment, Corruption etc. Therefore, the Judicial Activism became the most popular description of the role of Judiciary.
Causes for Judicial Activism :
The following are the causes for the emergence of Judicial Activism in India.

1. Expansion of the rights of hearing in the administrative process.
2. Excessive delegation without limitation.
3. Judicial Review over administration.
4. Promotion of open government.
5. Indiscriminate exercise of contempt of power.
6. Exercise of jurisdiction when non – exist.
7. Over extending the standard rules of interpretation in its search for socio-economic and educational objectives.
   8) Breakdown of other machinery of the government.

Merits of Judicial Activism :

1. Judicial Activism has democratized the judicial system by giving, access to the courts not just to individuals but also to groups.
2. It has enforced executive accountability.
3. It made an attempt to make the electoral system more free and fair.
4. It is due to the impact of Judicial Activism during elections the candidates who tender affidavits disclosing their assets, income, educational qualifications, criminal record etc. This enable the people to elect better candidates.

De – Merits:

1. Judicial Activism has blurred the line of distinction between the executive and legislature on the one hand and the judiciary on the other hand.
2. Some felt that Judicial Activism led to the worsening of relations and balance among the three organs of government.
3. Democracy is based on the principle that each organ of government will respect the powers and jurisdiction of others. But Judicial Activism may negate this democratic principle.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write about the composition of the Supreme Court.
Answer:
The Supreme Court of India is the highest court of Justice in India part V of the India Constitution from Articles 124 to 147 deals with the composition, Appointment, Qualifications of Judges, powers and Functions of the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court of India was established in New Delhi on January 26, 1950.

Composition :
The Supreme Court consists of the chief Justice of India and such number of other Judges as is provided by the law. The parliament is authorised to determine the number of Judges in the Supreme Court. At present, there are a chief Justice and 30 other Judges in the Supreme Court. There may be some Adhoc Judges and retired Judges on temporary basis in the Supreme Court. All general cases are adjudicated by division Bench comprising two or more judges.

Cases involving the constitutional matters are heard by a constitution bench consisting Five Judges.

For considering special cases larger benches consisting of Five or more than Five Judges are constituted.

Question 3.
Mention any two Jurisdictions of the Supreme Court.
Answer:
1. Original Jurisdiction :
The original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is purely of federal in nature. This power is confined to disputes between (a) the Government of India and any of the States in India, (b) The Government of India and any State of States on one side and other States on the other side or (c) two or more States. This power exclusively belongs to the Supreme Court and no other court in India is empowered to entertain any such suit. However disputes arising out of any treaty agreement, convenant, engagement etc., do not come under this Jurisdiction unless referred to by the President for advisory opinion. The Supreme Court can directly hear the disputes concerning the election of the President and the Vice-President.

2. Appellate Jurisdiction:
The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal in India. Its appellate Jurisdiction may be divided into three heads.

1. Cases involving interpretation of constitution,
2. Civil cases and.
3. Criminal cases.

i) The Supreme Court hears cases involving a substantial question of Law as the interpretation of. the constitution. It requires the certificate of the High Court for hearing such a case. Sometimes the Supreme Court can take up the appeal if it is satisfied that the case has do with certain intepretation of the constitution.

ii) In case where no constitutional question is involved, the Supreme Court hears appeals on the basis of a certificate of the High Court. Such cases, in the opinion of High Court involve (a) a substantial question of law and (b) the decision of the Supreme Court,

iii) In case of the criminal matters the Supreme Court hears appeals from any Judgement, whether they are in the form of final order or sentence of the High Court. It hears two specified cases namely.
a) Where the High Court has on an appeal reversed on order of acquittal of an accused and sentenced him to death and b) Where the High Court has tried the appeals from any of its subordinate courts convicted the accused and sentenced him to death.

Question 3.
What are the powers of Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court?
Answer:
The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal in India. Its appellate Jurisdiction may be divided into three heads.

1. Cases involving interpretation of constitution,
2. Civil cases and
3. Criminal cases.

i) The Supreme Court hears cases involving a substantial question of Law as to the interpretation of the constitution. It requires the certificate of the High Court for hearing such a case. Sometimes the Supreme Court can take up the appeal if it is satisfied that the ease has do with certain intepretation of the constitution.

ii) In case where no constitutional question is involved, the Supreme Court hears appeals on the basis of the High Court. Such cases, in the opinion of High Court involve (a) a substantial question of law and (b) the decision of the Supreme Court.

iii) In case of the criminal matters the Supreme Court hears appeals from any Judgement, whether they are in the form of final order or sentence of the High Court. It hears two specified cases namely.

a) Where the High Court has on an appeal reversed on order of acquittal of an accused and sentenced him to death and b) Where the High Court has tried the appeals from any of its subordinate courts convicted the accused and sentenced him to death.

The Supreme Court also hears appeals by special leave on any judgement of the High Court when the latter certifies that the case is fit for hearing by the Supreme Court. Besides, the Supreme Court as per Article 136 hears appeals over the cases that remain outside the purview of the ordinary law.

Question 4.
Explain the Advisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
Answer:
Under Article 143, the Supreme Court has advisory jurisdiction. Accordingly, the supreme Court offers its advice to the President on those matter of. legal or public or constitutional importance, when the President seeks such advice. It also reports its opinion over the disputes referred to it by the President, arising out of any treaty, agreement which was made or executed before the commencement of the Constitution. So far the Supreme Court rendered its advice to the President on eight occasions. The president, in the recent past, sought the advice of the Supreme Court on the ‘Ayodhya Issue’.

These are excluded by Article 131. However, the Supreme Court is not bound to render advice on such matters and the president is not bound to accept such an advice.

One may immediately question about the utility of the advisory powers of the Supreme Court. The utility is twofold. In the first place, it allows the government to seek legal opinion on a matter of importance before taking, action on it. This may prevent unnecessary litigations later. Secondly, in the light of the advice of the Supreme Court, the government can make suitable changes in its action or legislations.

Question 5.
Write about the Writ Jurisdiction.
Answer:
The word ‘writ’ literally means ‘order’ in written form. Article 32 of our Constitution confers authority upon the Supreme Court, to issue a constitutional writ for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights of the citizens. Any person, whose fundamental rights have been violated, can directly move the Supreme Court for remedy. The Supreme Court issues Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibitions, Quo-Warranto and Certiorari, for enforcing the Fundamental rights.

i) Habeas Corpus :
Literally means ‘to have the body of. It is issued by the court to affect the release of a person who has not been detained legally. Under this writ the court issues orders to the concerned authority to produce the person before-the court. The failure to abide by the writ order is met with punishment for contempt of court.

ii) Mandamus :
It means ‘we command’. The writ is a command issued by the court to a public official to do a duty which he has failed to do. This writ cannot be issued against private persons.

iii) Prohibition :
It means ‘to forbid’. It is issued by a higher court to a lower court to prevent the latter from exceeding its jurisdiction that it does not posses. This writ can be issued only against judicial and quasi-judical authorities.

iv) Certiorari:
It means ‘to be certified’ or ‘to be informed’. This writ is issued against the lower courts by the Supreme Court or High Courts, if the lower former courts violate their jurisdiction.

v) Quo Warranto :
It means ‘by what authority’ or ‘warrant’. If the court finds that a person is holding a public office which is not entitled to hold that office, it issues this writ for restricting that person from acting in that office. This writ is also not issued with respect to the private offices.

Besides the above, many other mechanism have been established for protecting of human rights. The National Commission for Women, the National Commission for Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes, the National Human Rights Commission etc are some examples in this regard.

Question 6.
Describe Judicial Activism in India.
Answer:
It is the collective responsibility of the legislative, executive and the judiciary to accomplish the goals of the Constitution. Social Justice is the prime goal of the Constitution. Judiciary plays a vital role in achieving this goal. In order to meet the basic needs of the poor the oppressed and suppressed classes of the society, the Supreme Court entertains and also encourages the Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in its expanded, role of Judicial Activism.

As a result the apex court has evolved, developed new techinique, discovered and applied new remedies for violation of Fundamental Rights, and attempted to fill the vacuum arising out of executive and legislative inaction.

Due to the negligible attitude of the legislature and lack of edicts from the executive, the vulnerable classes of the society are sometimes denied social justice. In such circumstances, Social Action Groups, Civil Liberties Organizations, Voluntary Organizations etc., have come forward to their rescue through Public Interest Litigation.

As Chief Justice A.S. Ananad remarked that “the expanded concept of Public Interest Litigation by judicial interpretation from time to time has expanded the judicial limits of the courts exercising Judicial Review. This expanded role has been given the title of Judicial Activism by those who are critical of this expanded role of the Judiciary”.

Question 7.
What is meant Public Interest Litigation (PIL). [Mar. 17]
Answer:
The institution of Public Interest Litigation originated in USA during the mid 1960s. PIL or Social Action Litigation is an offshoot of liberalized rules of locus – standi. The traditional rule of locus-standi was based on the fact that judicial remedy can be sought only by those who have suffered an injury on account of violation of legal right by some public authority. The PIL choose liberalize this rule by making it clear that any person who suffer an injury but is unable to reach the court can take help of public minded citizens to reach the court to seek justice.

Public Interest Litigation Movement in India emerged during post-emergency years intending to make the judicial system accessible to the socially and economically lower sections of the society. In most of cases, Judicial Activism has occurred through public interest litigation. In public interest litigation any person or group can approach the Supreme Court and High Court for the redressal of grievances on behalf of the victim or victims who were incapable of approaching the court.

Under this new arrangement, a destitute citizen can file a writ petition even through a simple letter written on the post card. This derives authenticity from the “right be heard” as implied by Article 32 of the Constitution. But the court has to ensure that the petitioner who approaches the court with PIL, is acting bona- fide and not for personal gains private profit, political or other oblique considerations. The court should not allow this process to be abused by politicians and others to delay legitimate administrative action or to gain a political objective.

Question 8.
What is the Meaning of Independence of Judiciary? How is it ensured by the constitution?
Answer:
The Judiciary performs its Functions independently. The Legislature or the executive shall not interfere in the working of the Judiciary. The Judiciary carries on its obligations according to the constitutional norms and democratic principles.

The following measures have been taken by the constitution to ensure the independence of Judiciary in India.

Measures ensuring for Independence of Judiciary
1. The Legislature is not involved in the process of appointment of judges. Thus, it is believed that party politics would not play a role in the process of appoinments. In order to be appointed as judge, a person must have experience as a advocate and / or must be well versed in law. Political opinion of the person or his/her political loyalty should not be the criteria for appointments to judiciary.

2. The judge have a fixed tenure. They hold office till reaching the age of retirement. Only in exceptional cases judges may be removed as per the procedure prescribed in the Constitution. This measure ensures that judge could function without fear % or favor.

3. The Judiciary is not financially dependent on either the executive or legislature. The Constitution provides that the salaries and allowances of the judges are not subjected to the approval of the legislature.

4. The actions and decisions of the judges are immune from personal criticism. The judiciary has the power to penalize those who are found guilty of contempt of court. This authority of the court is seen as an effective protection to the judges from unfair criticism.

5. Judiciary in India is neither a branch Of the executive nor a hand-made of the legislature. It has an independent identity under the Constitution.

6. Our Constitution prescribes specific and high qualifications for the judges. Thus, only those persons who have specific qualifications and experience as prescribed by the Constitution can be appointed as Judges of Supreme Court.

7. Security of the service for the Judges is an essential quality for securing the independence of Judiciary. No Judge can be removed from the office except by impeachment and only on the grounds of proven misbehavior or incapacity.

8. The Judiciary in India enjoys the vast jurisdiction. It is no way subordinate to the other organs of the government. Its decisions bind all. Such a powerful position helps the Judiciary to maintain its independence.

Question 9.
What are the Power and Functions of the Attorney-General of India? [Mar. 18, 16]
Answer:
Article 76 of our Constitution provided for the office of the Attorney General of India. The Attorney General is the highest law officer of the Union Government. He is appointed by the President. He holds the office during the pleasure of the President. He is entitled to all privileges and immunities allowed to a Member of Parliament. When he attends sessions of the House, he occupies a seat on the treasury government benches.

Qualifications :
The Attorney General of India Possess the same qualifications that are necessary for a judge of the Supreme Court. They are as follows.

1. He must be a citizen of India.
2. He must have served as a judge in some High Court for a period of at least five years.
3. He must have served as an advocate in some High Court for a period of at least ten years.
4. He must be a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.

Pay and Allowances :
The Attorney General of India is paid not a salary but a remuneration that is determined by the President. The remuneration of Attorney General is equal to salary of a judge of the Supreme Court.

Removal:
He may quit his office by submitting his resignation to the President. He can be removed by the President in case a special address is passed charging him with ‘proved misbehavior’ or ‘incapacity’ by each House of Parliament with its absolute majority and with two-thirds majority of the members present and voting.

Powers and functions :
The Constitution assigned some specific powers and functions to the Attorney General of India. They are mentioned as follows :

1. The Attorney General of India render advice to the Union Government upon such legal matters which are referred to him by the President.
2. He performs such other functions of legal character that are assigned to him by the President from time to time.
3. He discharges the Functions conferred on him by the constitution or any other Laws.
4. He appears in any court of Law on behalf of the union government in all. cases.
5. He represents the government in any reference made by the president to the Supreme Court.
6. He appears in any High, Court on behalf of the union government.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Qualifications of Judges of Supreme Court.
Answer:
A person to be appointed as a judge of the supreme court shall possess the following qualifications :

1. He should be a citizen of India.
2. He should have continuously worked as a judge in one or more High Courts at least for a period of 5 years.
3. He should have continuously worked as an advocate of one or more High Courts for not less than 10 years or
4. He should be a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the president of India.

Question 2.
Removal of the Judges of Supreme Court.
Answer:
A judge of the Supreme Court can be removed from his position only on the grounds of proved misbehavior or incapacity. He can be removed from his office by an order of the president, after an address from each house of Parliament, supported by a majority of the total membership of that house and by a majority of not less than 2/3 notes of the members present and voting passed.

Question 3.
Judicial Review. [Mar. 16]
Answer:
Judicial Review means the power of the Supreme Court or High Court to Examine the constitutional validity of the legislative enactments and executive actions of both central and state governments and to declare them ‘null and void’ if found repugnant of the provisions of the constitution.

Question 4.
Court of Record.
Answer:
According to Article 141, Supreme Court acts as court of Record. Being the highest court of the land, its proceedings acts and judgements are kept in record for perpetual memory and further verification and reference.

Question 5.
Judicial Activism.
Answer:
Generally, Judicial Activism is construed to be the over willingness of the judiciary to jump into the arena of executive or legislative functions. In general parlance, the expression “activism” means “being active”, “doing things with decision” and the expression “activist” should mean “one who favours intensified activities”. Judicial Activism is a policy making in competition with policy making by legislature and executive.

The essence of true Judicial Activism is rendering of decisions which are in tune with the temper and tempo of the times. The nature of Judicial Activism is that it furthers the cause of social change or articulates concepts like liberty equality or justice.

Question 6.
PIL.
Answer:
In Public Interest Litigation any person or group can approach the Supreme Court and High Court for the redressal of grievances on behalf of the victim or victims who were incapable of approaching the court. Under this new arrangements a destitute citizen can file a writ petition even through a simple letter written on the post card.

Question 7.
Independence of Judiciary.
Answer:
The Judiciary perform its functions independently. The legislature or the executive shall not interfere in the working of the judiciary. The Judiciary carries on its obligations accordingly to the constitutional norms and democratic principles.

Question 8.
Habeas corpus.
Answer:
Literally means ’to have the body of. It is issued by the court to affect the release of a person who has not been detained legally. Under this writ the court issues orders to the concerned authority to produce the person before the court. The failure to abide by the writ order is. met with punishment for contempt of court.

Question 9.
Seat of the Supreme Court. [Mar. 18, 17]
Answer:
The Supreme Court ordinarily shall sit at New Delhi. The Supreme Court of India was inaugurated on January 28, 1950. All general cases are adjudicated by a division Bench comprising two or more judges. Cases involving the constitutional matters are heard by a constitution bench consisting five judges. For considering special causes larger benches consisting of five or more than five judges are constituted.

Question 10.
Writs.
Answer:
The word ‘writ’ literally means ‘order’ in written form. Article 32 of our constitution, confers authority upon the supreme court, to issue a constitutional writ for the enforcement of fundamental rights of the citizens. Any person whose fundamental rights have been violated, can directly move the supreme court for remedy. The Supreme Court issues harbeas corpus mapdomus prohibition quo-warranto and certiorari for enforcing the fundamental rights.

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 4th Lesson Union Legislature Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 4th Lesson Union Legislature

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Describe powers and functions of the speaker. [Mar. 18]
Answer:
Articles 93 to 97 of the Indian Constitution deal with the office of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. The Speaker acts as head of the Lok Sabha, guardian of members and principal spokesman of the house. He enjoys Supreme Authority and power on the floor of the house.

Election :
The members of the Lok Sabha elect the Speaker from among themselves. According to the Parliamentary convention the speaker is unanimously elected or chosen by the members on the request of the Prime Minister.

A person elected as the speaker must be a member of the Lok Sabha.

Tenure:
The speaker continues in office for five years. Though the Lok Sabha is dissolved the speaker continues in office until the new Lok Sabha elects its speaker. (Article 94).

Removal:
The speaker can be removed from office by a majority members, resolution, proceeded by a 14-day prior notice to that effect.

Salary and. allowances :
At present, the speaker receives a monthly salary of ₹ 1,40,000. Besides he is provided with rent free accommodation, Medical, travelling, and telephone facilities.

Powers and functions of the speaker :

1. The speaker presides over the meetings of the Lok Sabha. He conducts the meetings with dignity, order and efficiency.
2. He allots time to the members to express their views on the bills, conducts voting if necessary and announces the results.
3. He sends bills to the Rajya Sabha after they are approved by the Lok Sabha. On the receipt of the Bills from the Rajya Sabha, he certifies and sends them to the President of India for his consent.
4. He acts as the representative of the Lok Sabha. He sends messages and directives to the members on behalf of the Lok Sabha.
5. He takes steps for safeguarding the rights and privileges of the members and for upholding the respect of the house.
6. He has the privilege of determining whether a bill is money bill or not.
7. He accords permission to the members for introducing various bills in the house. He gives his signature on the bill approved by the house.
8. He is empowered to permit the members to move a No-confidence motion against the government, postpone the meetings of the house and decide the Quorum in the house.
9. He constitutes various house committees and appoints their chairpersons.
10. He presides over the joint session of the Parliament.
11. He exercises his casting vote in case of a tie over a bill. ,
12. He conducts the election of the Deputy Speaker in case of a vacancy.

Question 2.
Explain the powers and functions of the Union Legislature. [Mar. 16]
(Or)
Write about the composition powers and functions of the Indian Parliament.
Answer:
Introduction :
The Union Legislature (Parliament) is the highest legislative organ of the Union government. Articles 79 to 129 in part V of Indian Constitution deals with the composition, organization, powers, and functions of the Indian Union Legislature.

Composition :
Indian Parliament consists of the

1. President
2. Rajya Sabha (Council of states)
3. Lok Sabha (House of people)

The upper house Rajya Sabha represents the states and union territories.

The lower house Lok Sabha represents the people.

The President of India has the power to summon or prorogue the two houses of Parliament though he is not a member of either house.

He can dissolve the Lok Sabha on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister.

Powers and functions of the Union Legislature (or) Indian Parliament :
The Parliament enjoys extensive powers and performs variety of functions. These powers and functions are under the following points.

1) Legislative Powers and Functions:
The main function of the Indian Parliament is law making. It makes laws on all the subjects mentioned in the Union List and Concurrent List. Under certain circumstances it also makes laws on the subjects mentioned in the State List. Further, it also makes laws on the matters that are not included in any of the three Lists i.e., on residuary matters.

2) Executive Powers and Functions :
Another important function of the Indian Parliament is controlling the Executive (Union Council of Ministers). Parliament controls the Executive through various ways, such as by asking questions, supplementary questions, and by introducing adjournment motions and no confidence resolutions against the Ministry. Hence the survival of the Government depends upon the will of the members in the Lower House. The executive remains in office so long as it enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha.

3) Financial Powers and Functions :
The Parliament controls the financial resources of the nation. It accepts the budget and other money bills required by the government. Its permission is needed for the government for imposing and collecting tax and for revising the existing tax rates. In this regard the Lok Sabha has more financial powers than the Rajya Sabha. All money, bills shall at first be introduced in the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha has to accept all money bills sent by the Lok Sabha within 14 days. It approves the railway budget, appropriation bill, and other money bills.

4) Judicial Powers and Functions :
The Parliament has certain judicial powers and functions. It has the power to remove the President and Vice President. The procedure is called impeachment. It has also the power to recommend to the President the removal of the higher officials of the country such as the Chief justice and Judges of Supreme Court, High Court and the Chairman, and other members of U.P.S.C., Chief Election Commissioner etc., for violation of certain principles.

5) Constitutional Powers and Functions:
The Parliament takes initiative for changing the provisions of the Constitution according to the changing times. Bills relating to the Constitution amendments may be introduced in either House. The State legislatures also join with the Parliament in accepting certain important Constitutional amendment bills. There are three methods of amending the Constitution.

6) Electoral Powers:
The Parliament also serves as an electoral college. It participates in the election of the President and Vice President. The Speaker and Deputy Speaker who act as the presiding officers are elected by the members of Lok Sabha. The Deputy Chairman is elected by the members of the Rajya Sabha.

7) Deliberative Powers and Functions :
The Parliament acts as the highest forum and direct agency of public opinion. Its members discuss various issues of national and international significance. They demand the government to solve the people’s problems.

8) Miscellaneous Powers :
In addition to the above, the Indian Parliament has also the power to a) create or abolish Legislative Councils b) change the names and boundaries of the States, etc.

Conclusion:
A look at the powers and functions of the Indian Parliament it is the centre of legislative activity and political activity of our country.

Question 3.
Examine the role of financial committees in Parliament.
Answer:
The Financial committees of Parliament endeavour of undertake the task of detailed scrutiny of governmental spending and performance, there by securing the accountability of the administration to the Parliament in financial matters.
There are three financial committees in Indian Parliament. They are :

1. Public Accounts committee
2. Estimates committee and
3. Committee on public undertakings

1) Public Accounts Committee :
Public Accounts Committee was set up on 1921. It consists of 22 members. Out of them, 15 members belong to the Lok Sabha and 7 members to the Rajya Sabha. Their term of office is one year. They are elected by means of proportional representation and single transferable vote. The speaker nominates one of the members as the chairman of the committee. It became a convention to appoint one of the members of the opposition in the Lok Sabha as its chairman since 1967-68. The Committee performs the following functions :

1. The Committee examines the annual audit reports of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India.
2. It examines Public Expenditure not only from legal and formal point of view to discover technical irregularities but also from the point of view of economy prudence, wisdom, and property.
3. It brings out the appropriation accounts and the finance accounts of the Union Government and any other accounts laid before the Lok Sabha.
4. It examines whether the public funds are disbursed properly.
5. It examines the accounts of Autonomous and Semi-Autonomous bodies, the audit of which is conducted by the CAG.
6. It investigates the money spent on any service during the financial year in the excess of the amount granted by the Lok Sabha for that purpose.

The Comptroller and Auditor General renders assistance to this committee. The members of this committee carry out a country-wide tour and meet the concerned officers non-officials, people and receive petitions from them and it submits a final report to the Speaker of the Lok Sabha.

2) Estimates Committee :
The origin of this committee can be traced to the Standing Financial Committee setup in 1921. The Estimates Committee was at first constituted in April 1950 in free India. It consists of 30 members of the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha has no representation in this Committee. These members are elected by the Lok Sabha every year from among its own members according to the principle of proportional representation by means of single transferrable vote. The members hold their office for a year.

The Speaker ha appoints the Chairman of the Committee. If the Duty Speaker is a member ttee, the Speaker appoints him as the Chairman of the Committee. One third of the total members belong to newly elected members. The Chairman of the Committee will be appointed invariably from the ruling party. Mr. M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar acted the first chairman of this committee in the first Lok Sabha.

The members of this-committee may visit different projects and hold discussions with the officers, non-officials, business groups and receive suggestions from them. The committee functions on permanent basis.

The committee performs the following four important functions :

1. It offers suggestions in regard to the economy in expenditure, improvement in organization and efficiency of the Union Government.
2. It examines as to whether the public funds are disbursed as per the estimates.
3. It also examines the matters assigned to it by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
4. It examines whether the money is well laid out within the, limits of the policy implied in the estimates. Hence, it has been described as a ‘continuous economy committee’.

3) Committee on Public Undertakings :
The Committee on Public Undertakings was created in 1964 on the recommendations of Krishan Menon Committee. It consists of 22 members out of which 15 are from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya Sabha. The members of the committee are elected by the Parlianient every year from amongst its own members according to the principle of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote.

The purpose of the committee is to lighten the burden of Public Accounts Committee. The Chairman of the committee is appointed by the speaker from amongst its members who are drawn from the Lok Sabha only. The members of Rajya Sabha are not be appointed as a Chairman of the committee. The functions of the committee are :

1. To examine the reports and accounts of Public Undertakings.
2. To examine the reports of the Comptroller and Audit of General on undertakings.
3. To examine whether the affairs of the public undertakings are being managed in accordance with sound business principles and practices.
4. To exercise such other functions vested in the Public Accounts Committee and the Estimates Committee.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write about the composition of the Lok Sabha.
Answer:
The Lok Sabha or the House of the people is the lower house in Indian Parliament. Maximum strength of the Lok Sabha envisaged by the constitution is now 552 (530 members to represent states, 20 to represent union territories and 2 members of Anglo-Indian community, to be nominated by the President).

At present there are 545 members in the Lok Sabha out of them,

• 530 members are elected from the states.
• 13 members are elected from the union territories and the remaining.
• 02 members are nominated by the President from the Anglo Indian community.

Out of 543 elected seats, 79 seats are reserved for the scheduled castes and 41 for the scheduled tribes.

The election is through direct franchise.
The tenure of the Lok Sabha is normally 5 years.

A person who wishes to contest as a candidate for the membership of the Lok Sabha must
A) Be an Indian citizen.
B) Have completed 25 years of age.
C) Not hold any office of profit in union, state or local governments.
D) Possess such other qualifications as prescribed by the Parliament.

Question 2.
Explain the election of the speaker of the Lok Sabha.
Answer:
The members of the Lok Sabha elect the Speaker from among themselves. According to the Parliamentary convention, the speaker is unanimously elected or chosen by the members on the request of the Prime Minister.

When no single party secures majority or when a coalition Ministry is formed, the coalition Ministry is formed, the coalition partners will make efforts for deciding the candidature for the office of the speaker. Sometimes coalition partners may hand over that office to a candidate selected by the parties that declare support from outside. A person elected as the speaker must be a member of the Lok Sabha.

Question 3.
What do you know about the composition and qualifications of members . of the Rajya Sabha?
Answer:
The Rajya Sabfya is the upper chamber in Indian Parliament. Article 80 stipulates that the Rajya Sabha shall consist of
A) 12 members nominated by the President and
B) Not more than 238 representatives of the states and of the union territories.

Thus its maximum membership shall be 250 only.
At present there are 245 members in the Rajya Sabha of them

• 229 members belong to the elected from the 29 states.
• 3 members belong to the National capital territory of Delhi.
• 1 member represents the union territory of Pondicherry and the remaining.
• 12 members nominated by the President having practical experience in respect of matters such as literature, science, arts and social service.

The members are elected in accordance with the proportional representation by means of single transferable vote system.

Qualifications :

1. He shall be a citizen of India.
2. He shall have completed 30 years of age.
3. He should not hold any office of profit under union, state or local government.
4. He shall possess such other qualifications as prescribed by the Parliament.

The Raja Sabha is a permanent house of which l/3rd of its total members shall retire for every two years.

Question 4.
Write a note on the chairman and Deputy chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
Answer:
Chairman of Rajya Sabha:
The Presiding Officer of Rajya Sabha is popularly known as the Chairman. The Vice President of India acts as the Ex-Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. He is not a member of the House. The members of Parliament elected him for every five years as the Vice-President of India. It implies that both the members of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha cast their vote in the Vice-Presidential election.

At present he is paid ₹ 1,40,000/- towards monthly salary and allowances. His salaries and allowances are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India. The Chairman of Rajya Sabha vacates his office only if he is removed from the office of the Vice President.

Deputy Chairman:
The Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha is elected by the members of the Rajya Sabha amongst the members. The Deputy Chairman receives a monthly salary of ₹ 90,000/-. In the absence of the Chairman, the Deputy Chairman acts as Chairman and presides over the meetings of the Rajya Sabha. Whenver the office of the Deputy Chairman falls vacant, the members of Rajya Sabha will elect another member to fill the vacancy.

Question 5.
Mention any three powers and functions of Indian Parliament.
Answer:
The Indian Parliament, the law body in our country, has extensive powers and performs a variety of functions. There are as follows : ‘

1) Legislative Powers :
The main function of the Indian Parliament is law making. It makes laws on all the subjects mentioned in the Union List and Concurrent List. Under certain circumstances it also makes laws on the subjects mentioned in the State List. Further, it also makes laws on the matters that are not included in any of the three Lists i.e., on residuary matters.

2) Executive Powers :
Another important function of the Indian Parliament is controlling the Executive (Union Council of Ministers) . The members exercise control over the Executive by asking questions, supplementary questions, and by introducing adjournment motions and no-confidence resolutions against the ministry. The ministers are collectively responsible for their actions, to the Lower House of the Parliament i.e., Lok Sabha. They will be in office as long as they enjoy the confidence of the majority of members in the Lok Sabha.

3) Financial Powers :
The Parliament controls the financial resources of the nation. It accepts the budget and other money bills required by the government. It’s permission is needed for imposing and collecting taxes and for revising the existing tax rates. In this regard the Lok Sabha has more financial powers than Rajya Sabha.

Question 6.
Write a note on the types of bills.
Answer:
A Bill is a proposed law under consideration by a legislature. A bill does not become law until it is passed by the legislature. Once a bill has been enacted into law, it is called on Act or statute.

Bills introduced in the Parliament are of two typek 1) Public bill (Government bill) and 2) Private bills (Private member’s bills) the public bills are introduced by the Ministers in the Parliament whereas private bills are introduced by any member of Parliament other than a Minister. The bills introduced in the Parliament may also be classified into four categories.

1) Ordinary bill:
Ordinary bills are concerned with any matter other than financial subjects.

2) Money bill:
Money bills are concerned with the financial matters like taxation, public expenditure etc.

3) Finance bill:
The financial bills are also concerned with financial matters but are different from money bills. These bills deal with fiscal matters i.e., revenue of, expenditure.

4) Constitutional Amendment Bill: Constitutional Amendment bills are concerned with the provisions of the constitution.

Question 7.
Explain briefly about the stages of law-making procedure in Indian Parliament.
Answer:
Law making is an important function of Indian Parliament. The Parliament has the power to pass all acts. A bill becomes an act after it receives the assent of the President. Every bill has to pass through different stages as described below.

1) First Reading:
A bill may be introduced by any member of Parliament. One has to ask for the leave of the House to introduce a bill. The title of the bill is to be read out. If the bill is voted for it is deemed to have been read first time and is published in the Gazette of India.

2) Second Reading:
The printed copies of the bill are distributed to all the members at this stage. It may be moved that the bill be referred to a select committee or that the bill be circulated for public opinion. There will be a general discussion on the main principles of the bill at this stage.

3) Committee Stage :
If the House approves the principles, the bill is referred to and examined by the select committee. Then it is thoroughly discussed clause by clause.

4) Report Stage :
The report of the committee with suggestions is presented to the House. If the House agrees to consider the bill as reported by the select committee the bill is taken up for clause by clause discussions and members may move amendments.

5) Third Reading:
The bill enters for the third reading. If it is approved by the House, only oral amendments are allowed at this stage. If the House accepts the bill it is deemed to have been passed by the House.

6) Consideration by the other House :
When the bill is passed by the House, it is sent to the other House for consideration. The procedure in one House is repeated in the other House. If the second House disagrees, a joint sitting is arranged to resolve the differences.

7) Assent by President:
If the bill is passed by both the Houses of Parliament, it is sent to the President for his assent. After the bill is given assent, it becomes an act which will be implemented by the Executive.

The President sometimes send a bill passed by the Parliament for reconsideration. The suggestions sent by the President along with the bill have to be taken up for discussion by the Parliament immediately. If the bill is passed second time by the Parliament, then the President has to give his assent to the bill.

Question 8.
What do you know about Public Accounts Committee.
Answer:
Public Account’s Committee was set up in 1921. It consists of 22 members. Out of them 15 members belong to the Lok Sabha and 7 members to the Rajya Sabha. Their term of office is one year. They are elected by means of proportional representation and single transferable vote. It became a convention to appoint one of the members of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha as its chairman since 1967-68. The Committee performs the following functions :

1. The Committee examines the annual audit reports of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India.
2. It examines Public Expenditure not only from legal and formal point of view to discover technical irregularities but also from the point of view of economy prudence, wisdom and property.
3. It brings out the appropriation accounts and the finance accounts of the Union Government and any other accounts laid before the Lok Sabha.
4. It examines whether the public funds are disbursed properly.
5. It examines the accounts of Autonomous and Semi-Autonomous bodies, the audit of which is conducted by the CAG.
6. It investigates the money spent on any service during the financial year in the excess of the amount granted by the Lok Sabha for that purpose.

Question 9.
Describe the composition and functions of Estimates Committee.
Answer:
The Estimates Committee was setup in 1950. It consists of 30 members of the Lok Sabha. The members hold their office for a year. The Speaker of the Lok Sabha appoints the Chairman of the Committee. If the Duty Speaker is a member of this Committee, the

Speaker appoints him as the Chairman of the Committee. The members of this committee may visit different projects and hold discussions with the officers, non-officials, business groups and receive suggestions from them. The committee functions on permanent basis.

The committee performs the following four important functions :

1. It offers suggestions in regard to the economy in expenditure, improvement in organization and efficiency of the Union Government.
2. It examines as to whether the public funds are disbursed as per the estimates.
3. It also examines the matters assigned to it by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
4. It examines whether the money is well laid out within the limits of the policy implied in the estimates. Hence, it has been described as a “continuous economy committee”.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Composition of Indian Parliament.
Answer:
Indian Parliament consists of the i) President ii) Rajya Sabha (Council of states ) iii) Lok Sabha (House of people)
The upper house, Rajya Sabha represents the states and union territories.

The lower house, Lok Sabha represents the people.

The President of India has the power to summon or prorogue the two houses of Parliament though he is not a member of either house.

He can dissolve the Lok Sabha on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister :

Question 2.
Qualifications of Rajya Sabha member.
Answer:

1. He shall be a citizen of India.
2. He shall have completed 30 years of age.
3. He should not hold any office of profit under union, state or local government.
4. He shall possess such other qualifications as prescribed by the Parliament.

Question 3.
Quorum of Lok Sabha. [Mar. 18, 16]
Answer:
Quorum implies minimum attendance of members required for conducting the meetings of the Lok Sabha. Quorum is fixed at l/10th of the total membership. The speaker determines whether there is Quorum on a particular day for conducting the meetings.

Whenever there is no Quorum, he postpones the meetings for an hour or two or for the next day. There are several instances where in the meetings of the Lok Sabha were deffered due to lack of Quorum.

Question 4.
The Speaker of Lok Sabha.
Answer:
The office of the Speaker has great dignity, honour and authority. As the speaker acts as the chairman of the Lok Sabha and as the member of the Lok Sabha represents the people directly. He represents the whole Nation. He acts as the friend, philosopher and guide to the members.

Question 5.
Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha.
Answer:
There will be a Deputy Speaker for conducting the proceedings of the Lok Sabha in the absence of the Speaker. The Deputy Speaker is elected by the members of the Lok Sabha from among themselves. The Deputy Speaker while acting as the presiding officer, enjoys all the powers and priveleges of the Speaker.

Question 6.
Committee on Public Undertakings. [Mar. 17]
Answer:
The Committee on Public Undertakings was created in 1964. It consists of 22 members out of which 15 are from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya Sabha. It examines whether the autonomy and efficiency of public sector undertakings are being managed in accordance with Sound business principles and prudent commercial practices.

Question 7.
Panel of Speakers.
Answer:
The Speaker nominates some of the members of the Lok Sabha as panel speakers. Maximum strength of panel chairpersons will be 10. If both the Speaker and Deputy Speaker are absent at particular time, one of the members from the panel of chairpersons will act as the Speaker. ,

Question 8.
Pro-tem Speaker.
Answer:
The President appoints the pro-tem Speaker for presiding over the meeting of the] first session of the Parliament after general elections. The pro-tem Speaker administers the oath of office on the elected members. Election to the office of the Speaker is held later. Pro-tem Speaker post is dissolved soon after the election of the new Speaker.

Question 9.
Question Hour. [Mar. 18, 16]
Answer:
In both houses of Parliament first hour is allotted to question hour. The members, by giving notice to the presiding officer, can ask questions pertaining to public issues, administrative inefficiency or about the role of the government.

Question 10.
Adjournment Motion.
Answer:
Adjournment Motion is tabled in the Parliament to draw attention of the house to a definite matter of urgent public importance and needs the support of 50 members to be admitted. If any member wants to introduce adjournment motion he should give in writing to the speaker, the Minister concerned and the Secretary General of Parliament before 10 A.M. on that day.

Question 11.
Whip [Mar. 17]
Answer:
Every political party whether ruling or opposition has its own whip in the Parliament. He is appointed by the concerned party to serve as an assistant floor leader. He is charged with the responsibility of ensuring the attendance of his party members in large numbers. He regulates and monitors their behaviour in the Parliament. The members are supposed to follow the directives given by whip, otherwise, disciplinary action can be taken against those members.

Question 12.
No Confidence Motion.
Answer:
According to Article 75 of the constitution, No Confidence Motion can be tabled in the Parliament when the Cabinet behaves in an irresponsible manner and if the ruling party does not enjoy majority. No confidence motion is introduced by the opposition parties through written notice supported by atleast 50 members and there will be a discussion on the motion. After the discussion there will be a voting. If the No-Confidence Motion is passed or approved In the house the cabinet has to resign.

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 2nd Lesson Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 2nd Lesson Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain the characteristic Features of Fundamental Rights.
Answer:
Fundamental Rights :
Fundamental Rights are an important feature of Indian constitution. They are meant for Indian citizens realising the ideal of political democracy. These rights are assigned to the Indian citizens. They enable the citizens to realize their personality. Fundamental Rights will act as a means for leading a happy and honourable life by citizens their render strength and succor to the citizens. They serve as the main source for realising the ideals of political democracy in India.

The makers of Indian constitution have incorporated Fundamental Rights in Articles 12-35 in part III of the constitution.

Characteristics features of Fundamental Rights :
Fundamental Rights have the following characteristic features.

1) Some of the fundamental rights are granted to the ‘citizens’ alone for example, equality of opportunity in matters of public employment, protection against discrimination on any ground; freedom of speech, assembly, association, etc., and cultural and educational rights of the minorities. On the other hand, some of the fundamental rights are available to any person living in the country whether Indian of foreign. For example, equality before law and its equal protection, protection of life, freedom of religion etc.

2) Some of the fundamental rights are positive in nature. They provide scope for the citizens to enjoy some types of freedom. On the other hand, some of the fundamental rights are negative in nature. They impose some restrictions upon the activities of the state.

3) Fundamental Rights are not absolute. In this sense the state can impose reasonable restrictions on their utilisation and enjoyment in the interest of public order, morality, and friendly relations with foreign states.

4) State may impose some restrictions on all or some of the fundamental rights of the citizens during the emergency. The president of India can suspend all the fundamental rights except article 21 (Right to Life) during the national emergency. However, the freedoms guaranteed can’t be restricted by any body.

5) Fundamental Rights are component of the Indian constitution. So they can’t be altered through ordinary laws.

6) Fundamental Rights are comprehensive, integrative and detailed in nature. Some restraints have also been imposed against the utilization of these rights under specific conditions.

7) Fundamental Rights are protected by the judicial organizations in the country. Especially the Supreme court and state High courts play a crucial role in this regard. The ensure justice to those whose rights are infringed or confiscated by others including the state authorities. They issue several writes for the protection of fundamental rights.

8) Fundamental Rights serve as the main means for proper utilization of the capacities and intelligence hidden among the Indian citizens.

9) Though the constitution guarantees six categories of fundamental Rights, all are not of equal weight. That is three can be discovered a hierarchy of values. It becomes evident when justice M. Hidayatullah in the Golaknath case ruled that right to property is the Weakest of all rights’.

Question 2.
Explain the various types of Directive principles of state policy mentioned in Indian constitution. [Mar. 18, 17]
Answer:
Directive principles of state policy are enumerated in articles from 36 to 51 in past -IV of the Indian constitution. They are borrowed from the Irish constitution. They help in realizing the objectives mentioned in the preamble.

Types of Directive principles of state policy: Directive principles can be classified into three broad categories namely Socialistic, Liberal-intellectual and Gandhian principles.

Article 36 defines the term “State”.

Article 37 declares that the directive principles shall not be enforceable by any court.

1) Socialist Principles:
Articles 38,39,41,42,43 and 47 explains about the socialistic ideology of the directive principles of state policy.
1. Article 38 prescribes that the state shall strive to provide justice and promote welfare of the people by creating a proper economic, social and political atmosphere.

2. Article 39 directs the state to secure its citizens.

• Adequate means of livelihood for all citizens.
• Equitable distribution of wealth for sub-serving the common good.
• Equal pay for equal work for all.
• Protection of adult and child labour.
• Decentralization of nation’s wealth.
• Preserving the health and strength of workers, men and women.
• Protecting childhood and youth against exploitation.

3. To secure right to work and education for all people* relief in the case of unemployment; old age; sickness and disablement and in dther cases of under served want. (Article 41).

4. To make provision for just and human conditions of work and maternity relief (Article 42).

5. To secure living wage and decent standard of life so as to ensure to the workers sufficient leisure and enjoyment of social and cultural Opportunities. (Article 43).

6. Raising the level of nutrition and standard of living of the people and the improvement of public health (Article 47).

2) Liberal-intellectual Principles:
The principles represent the ideology of liberalism and certain objective like provision of basic education, uniform civil code, independent judiciary and international peace. They are incorporated in Articles 44, 45, 50 and 51 of the Constitution.

1. The State shall secure for the citizens uniform civil code throughout the country. (Article 44)
2. The State shall provide free and compulsory education for all the children below 14 years of age. The Constitution (Eighty Sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 substituted, the following words in Article 45. “The State shall endeavor to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years.” (Article 45)
3. The state organize agriculture and animal husbandry on modem and scientific lines (Article 48)
4. The state protect monuments which are declared to be of national importance (Article 49)
5. The state protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wild life. (Article 48 A)
6. The State shall take steps to separate judiciary from executive in public services of the State. (Article 50)
7. The State shall (a) promote international peace, justice and security, (b) Maintain just and honorable relations with other nations (c) protection of monuments and place of historical and cultural interest (d) respect for international laws and treaty obligations; and (e) encourage settlement of international dispute by arbitration. (Article 51)

3) Gandhian Principles :
These Principles are based on gandhian ideology. They represent the programme of reconstruction enunciated by Mahatma Gandhi during the national movement. These principles provide ideal rule in India. They are reflected in Articles 40, 43, 46 and 47. They may be enumerated as under.

1. The State shall organize village Panchayats and endow them with adequate powers and authority so as to enable them to function as the units of self-government. (Article 40)
2. The State shall strive for the promotion of cottage industries on individual or cooperative basis in rural areas. (Article 43)
3. The State shall promote the educational and economic interests of the SCs, STs and BCs of society with special care, (Article 46)
4. The State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health (Article 47)

Other Principles :
The Constitution (Forty Second and Forty-Fourth Amendment) Acts of 1976 and 1978 added a few more subjects to the list of Directive Principles. While the Constitution (Forty Second Amendment) Act inserted Articles 39A, 43A, and 48 A, the Constitution (Forty Fourth Amendment) Act included Article 39 Clause (2). They cc the following provisions.

1. Providing opportunities for healthy development of children.
2. Promotion of equal justice and legal aid to the poor.
3.  Securing participation of workers in the management of industries.
4. Protecting the environment, forests and wild animals.

Question 3.
Describe the Fundamental Duties incorporated in Indian Constitution. [Mar. 16]
Answer:
Fundamental Duties are a significant feature of Indian Constitution. They are incorporated in our constitution by the constitution 42nd amendment act of 1976 in part – IV under article 51 A. They are borrowed from Russian Constitution. They are 11 in number as mentioned below :

• To abide by the Constitution and respect the National Flag and the National Anthem.
• To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom.
• To protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
• To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so.
• To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India and renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
• To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
• To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.
• To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
• To safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
• To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity.
• To provide educational opportunities by the parent or guardian to his child or ward between the age of six and fourteen years.

Question 4.
Explain the differences between Fundamental Rights and Directive principles of State Policy.
Answer:
Fundamental Rights are incorporated in Part – III (Article 12 to 35) of our Constitution. Fundamental Rights are of great significance. They serve as the best means to safeguard the life, liberty and property of individuals. They act as the main instrument for releasing the inherent talents and capabilities of the individuals. Fundamental Rights are borrowed from the American Constitution. These are justiciable and can be enforced by the courts.

The Directive Principles of State Policy is a feature of Indian Constitution. They are included in Part -IV from Articles 36 to 51. The principles help to realize the objectives mentioned in the preamble of our Constitution. The makers of our Constitution drew them from the Irish Constitution. These are directives to different governments and agencies of our country. These principles aim at transforming our country into a Welfare State. The rulers have to respect them. They cannot be enforced through any Court of Law. The I governments have to implement them subject to availability of funds. They explain the I responsibilities of the State towards the people.

Differences between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of state policy :

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write a note on the changing Relationship between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy.
Answer:
Fundamental Rights and Directive principles of state policy are the salient features of Indian Constitution.

Changing Relationship between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles :
Although a distinction is mode, between fundamental rights and directive principles of sate policy by way of justiciable and non-justiciable nature. Yet over the years directive principles of state policy have become politically important and the relation between the two has undergone several changes.

The Supreme court consistently held the opinion that the directive principles of state policy should be subsidiary to the fundamental rights. Judgements in various disputes like Sajjan Singh Vs state of Rajasthan and Golaknath Vs state of Punjab, the Supreme court confirmed its stand and reiterated that it is the duty of Parliament to enforce the Directive principles without tampering the Fundamental Rights.

As a result of the invalidation of certain laws like the Nationalization of Banks, Abolition of privy purses, the Parliament enacted the (Twenty Fifth Amendment) constitution Act in 1971 which declated that the enforcement of the directive principles of state policy shall not be invalidated by any court on the grand that it violates the fundamental rights in articles 14, 19 and 31 of the constitution.

Again the (Forty Second Amendment) constitution Act passed by Parliament in 1976 declared that no law, giving effect to any of all directive principles, shall be invalid on the ground that it infringes on Fundamental Rights. However, in the Minerava Mills case, the Supreme court restricted the original supremacy and sanctity of the fundamental rights over the directive principles of state policy. Thus, the fundamental rights have primary over the directive principles.

In the case of Keshavananda Bharati Vs state of Kerala. The supreme court held that the Parliament cannot among the basic structure of the constitution. By implication the Supreme court considered fundamental rights as a part of the basic structure of the constitution.

Question 2.
Explain any three fundamental rights of a citizen. [Mar. 18]
Answer:
1) Right to freedom of Religion :
This right denotes the secular nature of Indian political system. It aims at transforming India into a secular state. Both the citizens and aliens of India enjoy this right.

Article 25 empowers every persons to profess, practice and propagate a religion of this liking.

Article 26 guarantees the following rights to every person.

1. To establish and maintain religious and charitable institutions.
2. To mange his their religious affairs.
3. To own and acquire moveable and immovable properties and
4. To maintain such properties in accordance with the provision of the law.

Article 27 prohibits the state to impose or collect taxes from individuals purely on religious grounds. It also prohibits the state to’impose and collect taxes for the benefit and maintenance of any particular religion or religious denominations.

Article 28 bans religious instructions in educational institutions wholly or partly maintained by the state funds.

2) Educational and Cultural Rights :
Indian constitution provided several cultural and educational opportunities for Indian citizens through this right. Article 29 enables every citizen to preserve and protect his own language and culture irrespective of one’s religion, language or region.

Article 30 prohibits special treatment to any citizen in the admission into educational institutions either wholly or partly funded by the state on the grounds of caste, religion, region, colour, language or sect. However, it allowed the minotities some special facilities for preserving and promoting their language and culture. The state can grant financial assistance to them in this regard.

3) Right to Constitutional Remedies :
This right enables the individuals to approach a high court under article 226 or the supreme court under article 32 to get any of the fundamental rights restored in case of their violation. The Supreme court and the state High courts issue various writs for the implementation of Fundamental Rights. Dr. Ambedkar described this right as the Heart and Soul of the constitution.

Question 3.
Describe the six Freedoms of a citizen. [Mar. 17]
Answer:
Our constitution in chapter III under Article 19 (clause 1) guarantees certain fundamental rights subject to certain restrictions. They are also known as fundamental freedoms. They are :

1. Freedom of speech and expression.
2. Freedom of peaceful Assembly without Arms.
3. Freedom of Associations and Unions.
4. Freedom of movement throughout the territory of India.
5. Freedom of residence and settlement in any part of the Territory of India.
6. Freedom of profession, trade occupation or business.

These freedoms would facilitate the progress of Indian citizens in social, political and economic spheres. These freedoms are not absolute. The state may, if necessary, impose certain reasonable restrictions on the enjoyment of the above freedoms by the Indian citizens. These restrictions relate to the maintenance and safe guarding of the independence, sovereignty, integrity, law and order.

Question 4.
Write briefly on the right to Constitutional Remedies.
Answer:
This right is the most significant of all the fundamental rights. It extends protection and relief to those whose Fundamental Rights were abridged, confiscated or infringed by others including the public, authorities. As this right gives a citizen the right to approach a rights restored in case of their violation. The supreme court and the High court can issue orders and give directions to the governments for the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights. The courts can issue various writs like habeas corpus, Mandamus, prohibition, Quowarranto and certiorari Dr. Ambedkar rightly described this right as Heart and Soul of the constitution.

Question 5.
Explain any five differences between Fundamental rights and Directive principles of state policy. [Mar. 16]
Answer:

Question 6.
Explain the important characteristics of Directive principles of State Policy.
Answer:
The following are the characteristics of the Directive principles :

1. These are in the form of directives or instructions issued to the successive governments.
2. These are positive in nature as they extend the jurisdiction of the powers and functions of the governments at various levels in India.
3. Enforcement of these principles depends upon availability of financial resources.
4. They are popular in nature as they aim at the establishment of egalitarian society.
5. They are supposed to be implemented by any party in power irrespective of it’s policies and Ideology.
6. Failure to implement these principles is not considered as a breach of law.
7. They are non-justicable in nature as no one can force the governments to implement them immediately. The governments have discretion in implementing these principles.

Question 7.
Examine the implementation of Directive principles of state policy.
Answer:
Keeping in view the fact, Directive Principles of State Policy are fundamental in the governance of the country. The Union as well as the State Governments, since 1950, have been continuously taking various steps to implement them from to time. These are mentioned below:

1. Abolition of Zamindari, Jagirdari and Inamdari systems.
2. Introduction of Land Ceiling Acts.
3. Abolition of Privy Purses.
4. Nationalization of 14 leading commercial banks.
5. Establishment of Khadi and Village Industries Board etc. .
6. Organization of Village Panchayats.
7. Reservation of seats are reserved for SCs and STs in educational institutions and representative bodies.
8. Enactment of Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archeological Sites Remains Act 1951.
9. Separating criminal procedure code from the executive.
10. Prohibition of cow slaughter, calves and bullocks in some States.
11. Establishment of primary health centers and hospitals throughout the country.
12. Implementation of Non-Alignment and Panchasheel Principles.
13. Initiation of old age pension schemes.
14. Introduction of unemployment schemes.
15. Enactment of Minimum Wages Act.
16. Enactment of Wild Life Act.

Question 8.
Explain the significance of Directive principles of State Policy.
Answer:
Directive principles of state policy are considered as the most significant feature of the Indian constitution. They have great significance in the administration of our country. Though they lack legal sanction, they enjoy popular support and possess public sanction. If the party in power fails to implement these principles, it has to face resistance from the electorate in the coming elections.

So, no government can afford to ignore the implementation of these principles. The opposition, the press and the electorate would exert pressure on the government for implementing these principles. Hence the union government considered these principles as the basis for the functioning of National Planning Commission (or) NITI Ayog. They have helped the cburts in exercising their power of Judicial Review.

To conclude, directive principles of state policy are considered as an authoritative declaration of the aims and aspirations of Indians formulated by their representatives after solemn and mature deliberations as they are considered” as the goal of social Revolution”.

Very Short Questions

Question 1.
Fundamental Rights.
Answer:
Fundamental Rights are an important feature of Indian constitution. They are incorporated in part – III Articles from 12 to 35 in our constitution. They enable the citizens to realise their personality. They are :

• Right to Equality
• Right to Freedom
• Right against exploitation
• Right to Freedom of Religion
• Educational and cultural rights
• Right to constitutional remedies

Question 2.
Types of Directive principles.
Answer:
On the basis of their content and direction directive principles of state policy can be classified into three broad categories namely socialistic, Liberal – intellectual and Gandhian principles.

Question 3.
Habeas corpus. [Mar. 16]
Answer:
Habeas corpus literally means “To produce the body of”. It is in the nature of calling upon a person who has detained another to produce the latter before it. The court wants to know on what grounds a person has been detained. This writ frees a person whose detention has no legal justification.

Question 4.
Mandamus.
Answer:
Mandamus literally means “A mandate or command”. It is issued by a competent court for directing any person, corporation or inferior courts requiring him, it or them to do some particular, thing specified there in which appertains to his of their and is in the nature of public duty.

Question 5.
Cultural and Educational Rights.
Answer:
Article 29 guarantees to every citizen to protect his own language, script or culture. Article 30 provides that all minorities whether based on religion or language shall have the right to establish and maintain educational institutions of their choice.

Question 6.
Gandhian Ideas of Directive principles of state policy.
Answer:

1. The state shall organize village panchayats and endow them with adequate powers and authority so as to enable them to function as the units of self government (Article 40).
2. The state shall strive for the promotion of cottage industries on individual or cooperative basis in rural areas (Article 43).
3. The state shall promote the educational and economic interests of the SCs, STs and BCs of society with special care (Article 46).
4. The state shall endeavour to. bring about prohibition of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health (Article 47).

Question 7.
Significance of Fundamental Duties. [Mar. 17]
Answer:
Fundamental duties are considered most significant from the following view points.

1. The Fundamental Duties act as a reminder to the citizens that while enjoying their rights, they should also be conscious of duties they owe to their country, their society and to their fellow citizens.
2. They serve as warning against antinational and anti social activities.
3. They serve as the source of inspiration for the citizens and promote sense of discipline and commitment among them.
4. They help the courts in examining and determining the constitutional validity of a law.

Question 8.
Mention any three liberal principles.
Answer:

1. The state shall secure for the citizens uniform civil code throughout the country (Article 44).
2. The state organize Agriculture and Animal husbandry on modem and scientific lines, (Article 48).
3. The state shall take steps to separate judiciary from executive in public services of the state (Article 50)

Question 9.
Quo – Warranto
Answer:
Quo – Warranto literally means ‘What Warrant or Authority”. It enables the competent court to enquire into the legality of the claim which a party assets to a public office and to oust him from its enjoyment if the claim is not well founded.

Question 10.
Right to Religion.
Answer:
This right denotes the secular nature of Indian political system. It aims at transforming India into a secular state. Both the citizens and aliens of India enjoy this right. Articles from 25 to 28 in part – III of Indian constitution deals with right to freedom of Religion. This right enables the individuals to profers, practice and propagate any religion according to their conscience.

Question 11.
Right against exploitation.
Answer:
In our country, there are millions of people who are underprivileged and deprived. They are subjected to exploitation by their fellow human beings. One such form of exploitations is ‘begar’ or ‘forced labour’ without payment. Another closely related form of exploitation is trafficking of human beings and using them as slaves. Both are prohibited under Article 23 of our constitutions.

Article 24 of the Indian constitution forbids all forms of child labour below the age of 14 years in factories, mines and other hazardous industries.

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 1st Lesson The Constitution of India Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Civics Study Material 1st Lesson The Constitution of India

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is the constitution? Explain the historical background of the Indian Constitution.
Answer:
The term Constitution implies a written document embodying the provisions relating to the powers and functions of the government organs, the rights of the people and their relations with the government. In simple,

Powers and Functions of the state + Rights and Duties of the Citizens = Constitution

Historical Background of the Indian constitution :
The constitution of India is the best constitution in the world.

It was formulated by Drafting Committee headed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and approved by the Constituent Assembly Chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad.

Earlier the Leaders of Indian National Movement demanded several times for a separate constitution for Indians. They at first emphasized, during the second decade of the 20^th century, that the British government shall grant self-rule or right to formulate a constitution for Indians. It is in this context that leaders like Bala Gangadhara Tilak and Annie Besant launched the Home Rule movement. They requested the British government to apply the “right of self determination”.

The Swaraj Party Leaders in 1922 made it clear that constitutional arrangements must be made for providing representation to Indians in Legislative Assembly.

Later Motilal Nehru moved a resolution in the Central Legislative Assembly requesting the British government for convencing a Round Table Conference for formulating a constitution for Indians.

The Three Round Table conferences held in London in 1930, 1931 and 1932 and their recommendations led to the passage of Government of India Act, 1935.

The Act provided for the introduction of Federal Polity and the establishment of provincial autonomy in the British India Provinces.

In the wake of Second World War, the Congress Ministers in the provincial legislative councils proposed a resolution meant for recognizing India as independent state and the power to make a constitution by the provincial legislative councils.

Viceroy Linlithgow through his August offer (1940) announced for the first time that Indians must Cooperate with Britain in the Second World War and the primary responsibility of making a constitution wholly vests with the Indians.

In 1942 Prime Minister Winston Churchill made efforts for resolving the Indian constitutional crisis by sending Stafford Cripps, a member of war cabinet to India for extensive discussions with Indian leaders.

The Cripps Mission (1942) was a failure. In this back drop, Indian National Congress under Gandhiji’s leadership adopted the famous “Quit India Revolution on 8^th August, 1942 for the immediate ending of British rule in India.

After the Second World War, the labour party came to power in Britain under the leadership of element Attlee.

Then Viceroy Lord Wavell announced the latest policy of government in September, 1945. The British Government despatched a three member cabinet mission in February 1946 to India for making deliberations with Indian leaders on the issue of setting up of the Constituent Assembly and the provision of independence for Indians.

The Cabinet Mission made it clear that elections will be held to the Constituent Assembly and citizens having franchise will elect the members. Except Muslim League all the parties in India have agreed broadly the suggestions of the above team.

Lord Wavell formed on interion government with Jawaharlal Nehru as it’s head in 1946, with an increasing communal violence it seems there is no alternative to partition of the sub-continent.

The Mount Batten plan (1947) provided for the partition of the country. The Indian Independence Act of 1947 provided for setting up of a dominion of India and a dominion of Pakistan.

The Native states were given the choice of joining and becoming an integral part of either of the two dominions.

The vision and constructive statemanship of Sardar Vallabhai Patel the deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister facilitated the peaceful merger of most of the Native states into the Indian union.

Of course, the merger of Jammu and Kashmir, Junagadh and Hyderabad states into the Indian Union provided to be a difficult task.

Question 2.
Explain in brief the salient features of Indian Constitution. [Mar. 18, 16]
Answer:
Introduction :
The Indian constitution was prepared and adopted by the Constituent Assembly which was set up in 1946. The Constituent Assembly took nearly three years (From 9^th December, 1946 to 25^th November, 1949) to complete the framing of the constitution.

The Constituent Assembly approved the Indian Constitution on 26^th November, 1949. The Indian constitution came into force on 26^th January, 1950. Which we have been celebrating as “The Republic Day”. The following are the salient or basic features of the Indian constitution.

1) Preamble :
The Indian constitution begins with a preamble. The preamble clearly defines the objectives of our constitution. It declares India as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, democratic Republic. It provides liberty, equality, fraternity and justice. It states that the people of India are the chief source of the political authority.

2) A lengthy Written Document:
The Constitution of India is the most written, lengthy and detailed document in the world. In 1950, the Indian Constitution had 22 parts, 8 schedules and 395 articles. After subsequent amendments, it contains 12 schedules and 444 articles for the present.

3) A combination of rigidity and flexibility :
The constitution of India is a blend of rigidity and flexibility. Our founding Fathers were programatic enough to provide for rigidity and flexibility as the situation demands. Article 368 provides the details of the amendment procedure.

i) Some of the provisions like admission of New states (Ex : Telangana), provisions relating to citizenship, salaries and allowances of the members of the constitutional bodies like President, Vice-President, Supreme Court and High Court judges etc. Can be amended by simple majority. It is said to be flexible.

ii) Some provisions can be amended by a special majority i.e., not less than Two – Thirds of the members of the House present and voting.
Ex : Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of state policy etc.

It is said to be half rigid and half flexible.

iii) Some provisions can be amended by two-thirds majority of the Parliament and with the concurrence of half of the states.
Ex: Election of the President, executive powers of the union and the states, distribution of legislative powers between the union and the states etc. It is said to be rigid.

4) Quasi-Federal polity:
India is a states according to the constitution. Our constitution contains both the features of unitary and Federal Governments. It prescribed unitary system in emergencies and Federal system on ordinary occassions. Provisions of unitary state such as Single Citizenship, Single Integrated Judiciary, Single Election Commission, Role of All India Services Personnel etc., are found in our constitution. At the same time certain federal features like written, rigid constitution, Dual government, Bicameralism etc., are profoundly seen in our constitution. Thus it is a Quasi-Federal. Polity like Canada.

5) Republican government :
Unlike the colonial Master, the UK, India preferred a Republican government. Here all public offices right from World member to the top president of India are open to all eligible citizens and there is no place for hereditary principle.

6) Parliamentary government :
The constitution of India provided Parliamentary government of the British type but with an elected President of Irish Model. Accordingly, the features of Parliamentary government such as two executive heads, Ministerial accountability to the lower house of the legislature, Prime Minister leadership etc., are prevalent in our political system.

7) Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties:
Part – III of the constitution, Articles from 12 to 35, provides for a set of basic human rights to ail. They are justiceable and ensure basic freedoms. They are six in number. 1) Right to equality 2) Right to freedom 3) Right against exploitation 4) Right to religion 5) Cultural and educational right and 6) Right to constitutional remedies.

The 42^nd Amendment to the constitution in 1976 incorporated the fundamental duties in Article 51A under part – IVA. Though they are not justiciable. But they put an obligation on the citizens to render certain duties in return for the protection they have been enjoying through fundamental rights. Fundamental duties relate to respecting the constitution, the National Flag and National Anthem, safeguarding public property etc.

8) Single citizenship :
Our Constitution provides for single citizenship for all persons who are born in India and who resided in India for a specific period. It enables the citizens to possess and enjoy identical rights and privileges. It also promotes unity, integrity and fraternity among the people.

9) Universal and Adult Franchise :
The makers of the Indian constitution provided for the universal adult Franchise for all citizens without any discrimination based on caste, colour, creed, community, language, religion, region, sex, property etc. At the beginning, adult Franchise was given to all the citizens who attained the age of 21 years. Later voting age was reduced to 18 years through the 61st constitution, Amendment Act in 1988.

10) Secular state :
Our constitution stands for a secular state. It does not uphold any particular religion as the official religion of. the Indian state. It ensures complete religious freedom to the people. It abolishes discrimination between individuals on religious grounds in the matters of employments education and legislation. It prohibits religious instructions in state owned or state – aided educational institutions.

11) Independent judiciary :
The Judiciary performs its functions independently. The legislature or the executive shall not interfere in the working of the Judiciary. The Judiciary carries on its obligations according to the constitutional norms and democratic principles.

12) Directive principles of state policy:
Our constitution hinted out certain directive principles as the policy of the state in part IV from Articles from 36 to 51. These principles are drawn from Irish constitution. These principles reflect the welfare state concept. They are the directions to be followed by the various governments. Equal pay for equal work, provision of employment opportunities, fair distribution of wealth, old age pension, protection of illhealth, provision of education, protection of women and children etc., are the some examples of these principles. Though these principles are non-justiciable, No responsible government can afford to ignore them.

13) Bi-cameralism:
The constitution of India introduced Bi-cameralism at the National level. Accordingly, The Indian Parliament consists of two houses namely the Rajya Sabha (upper house) and the Lok Sabha (lower house). While the Rajya Sabha represents the states, the Lok Sabha represents the people.

14) Panchayati Raj and Nagar Palikas Acts :
The Panchayati Raj and Nagar Palikas Acts are recent features of our constitution. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts gave constitutional recognition to the Rural and Urban local governments. Which came into force in 1993 and 1994 respectively had become operative all over the territory of India. The ideals of democratic decentralisation or the grass roof democracy are realised by these acts.

These acts provides for adequate representation for women, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other weaker sections in the policy making bodies of the local governments.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write briefly the elements of the constitution.
Answer:
The term constitution implies a written document embodying the provisions relating to the powers and functions of the government organs, the rights of the people and their relations with the government.
Elements of the constitution :
1) The constitution prescribes a set of basic rules that ensure coordination amongst the members and groups of a society. The constitution specifies the basic allocation of power in a society. It decides who frames the laws. For example, in a democratic country like, the people through their elected representatives make the laws i.e., the Parliament at national level and state legislatures at state level are empowered to make laws.

2) It specifies the structure of the government and its limitations of the modern govemrttents are made up of three organs, viz.
i) Legislature which frames the laws within the limits set by the constitution.
ii) The executive, the President or the Governor, the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister or Chief Minister would be taking policy decisions as per the guidelines provided by the Parliament or Legislature.
iii) The Judiciary by interpreting the laws would set limits on the powers of both the legislature and executive.

Through the Judiciary, the constitution ensures limited and responsible government.
For example : Article 13 of the Indian constitution establishes the Supremacy of the constitution.

3) The constitution establishes the relationship between the rulers and the ruled. Fundamental rights and Fundamental Duties spell out in detail the mutual obligations of the citizens and the state. Part III and Part IVA of the Indian constitution bind the state and the citizens towards each other.

4) Every society has certain aspirations and goals. The state came into existence to fulfill the bare needs of the people and continues to exist for the good life of all. It is the constitution which directs the state i.e., government to make certain policies for welfare of the people.
Ex : Directive principles of state policy which incorporated in part – IV of the Indian
1 Constitution.

5) The constitution, as the Supreme document, serves as a shock absorber in limiting the fluctuations of present and future generations. It is a living document that connects the past with the present and assures a predictable future. Modem societies cannot survive without a just constitution.

Question 2.
Write about the making of Indian constitution.
Answer:
While Negotiations were going on about the modalities of transfer of power, a l Constituent Assembly was set up to draw the constitution for India. The Cabinet Mission and the major political parties reached an agreement over the constitution of Constituent Assembly in 1946.

Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in July, 1946 in which 292 members from British provinces, 93 members from Native states and 4 members from central provinces were elected. The Constituent Assembly of India held its first meeting on December 9, 1946. It elected Sachchidanand Sinha as its protemporaiy chairman.

On December 11, 1946 it elected Dr. Babu Rajendra Prasad as its permanent chairman.

The making of the constitution really began at its third session held between April 22 and May 2, 1947.

The Fourth session of the Assembly was held on July 14 and continued till July 31, 1947. It held discussions on Model constitution, Adopted the National Flag. The Assembly met for the fifth time on the eve of the independence day.

On August 29, 1947, it set up a seven member Drafting committee with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as its chairman.

The Drafting Committee presented the Draft constitution on February 21, 1948. The Constituent Assembly adopted the Draft constitution on November 26, 1949. The last session of the Assembly was held on January 24, 1950.

It elected Dr. Babu Rajendra Prasad as the first President of Indian Republic under the new constitution.

On January 26, 1950 the New constitution came into operation and India was declared as a Republic state.

Question 3.
Write a note on the sources of Indian constitution. [Mar. 18, 16]
Answer:
The constitution of India was formulated on the basis of various experiences. Almost all the noble features of the world constitutions have been incorporated in it. Similarly the peculiar political, social and cultural conditions present in India have been taken into account at the time of drafting the constitution. The makers of Indian constitution ignored those conditions prevalent in other countries which are contrary to the socio-economic and political background of India.

On the whole the following sources figure prominently in making the Indian constitution.

1. Many provision of Indian constitution have been drawn on the basis of West Minister Model (british). These include parliamentary traditions, rule of law, cabinet government, legislative-executive relations, single citizenship’ nominal executive head etc.
2. Some provisions like fundamental rights, judicial review, federal system, president’s election, impeaching the president etc., have been taken from the American constitution.
3. Items relating to directive Principles of State Policy have been drawn from the constitution of Ireland.
4. The emergency powers of the President have been taken basing on the German constitution.
5. Matters such as Concurrent List, Business, Commerce, Inter State trade, Special privileges of legislators etc., have been added on the model of Australia.
6. The Union-State relations mentioned in Indian constitution have been designed basing on the Canadian constitution.
7. Matters of constitutional amendment procedure were drawn from South African constitution.
8. The idea of republic and the ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity have been taken from the constitution of France.
9. Most of provisions of Indian constitution were drawn from the Government of India Act, 1935.

Question 4.
Explain any three salient features of Indian constitution.
Answer:
1) A combination of rigidity and flexibility :
The constitution of India is a blend of rigidity and flexibility. Article 368 provides the details of the amendment procedure. Some Of the’provisions like Admission of New states (Ex : Telanganaj, provisions relating to citizenship, salaries and allowances of the President, Vice president, Supreme Court and High Court judges etc., can be amended by simple majority. It is said to be flexible.

Some provisions can be amended by a special majority i.e., not less than two-thirds of the members of the House present and voting. Ex : Fundamental Rights, Directive principles of state policy etc. It is said to be half rigid and half flexible. Some provisions can be amended by two-thirds majority of the Parliament and with the concurrence of half of the states.
Ex : Election of the President, Distribution of Legislative powers between the union and the states etc. It is said to be rigid.

2) Republican government:
Unlike the colonial master, the U.K., India preferred a Republican government. Here all public offices right from ward member to the top of India are open to all eligible citizens and there is no place for hereditary principle.

3) Single citizenship :
Our constitution provides for single citizenship for all persons who are born in India and who resided in India for a specific period. It enables the citizens to possess and enjoy identical rights and privileges. It also promotes unity, integrity and fraternity among the people.

Question 5.
“The preamble is the soul of the constitution”. Explain.
Answer:
Preamble is the most salient features of Indian constitution. It denotes the essential philosophy of Indian constitution. It reflects the aims, aspirations and objectives of the makers of Indian constitution. Jawaharlal Nehru described the Preamble as a declaration, a firm resolve, a pledge, an understanding and something more than a resolution. Preamble begins with the sentence “we, the people of India’ adopt, enact and give to ourselves this constitution”.

It declared India as a sovereign socialist, secular, democratic and republic. It announced that Indians enjoy liberty, equality, fraternity and justice. It clearly stated that sovereignty in India belongs the people of India. Justice Madholkar pronounced that Preamble is the essence of Indian constitution. Justice Hidayatullah praised the Preamble as “the soul of the constitution”.

The Preamble after the Constitution (Forty Second Amendment) Act, 19718 is as follows :

We, the people of India having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens.

“Sovereign” – which means its authority within the country is undisputed and externally it is free from others contort. “Socialist” means a state that doesn’t, allow any kind of exploitation – social, economic and political.

“Secular” – It gives equal freedom to all religions.

“Democratic” – Stipulates that the sovereign power vests with the people. They exercise it periodically through universal Adult Franchise.

A “Republican” state assures that public offices are open to every citizen without any discrimination. There is no place for hereditary principle.

1. Justice – social, economic and political.
2. Liberty of-thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.
3. Equality of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all.
4. Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation.

In our Constituent Assembly this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this Constitution”.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Written constitutibn
Answer:
The constitution of India is the most written, lengthy and detailed document in the world. In 1950 the Indian constitution had 22 parts, 8 schedules and 395 articles. After subsequent amendments, it contains 12 schedules and 444 articles for the present.

Question 2.
Rigid constitution
Answer:
Rigid constitution is one whose provisions cannot be charged easily. In this system the constitutional amendment methods are different from those of ordinary laws. There will be a special procedure for amending the provisions of the rigid constitution. The rigid constitution will have firmness due to its special procedures of amendment.
Ex : United states and India.

Question 3.
Parliamentary form of government
Answer:
The constitution of India provided Parliamentary Government of the british type but with an elected president of Irish model. According to the features of Parliamentary government such as two executive heads, ministerial accountability to the lower house, of the legislature, Prime Minister, leadership etc., are prevalent in our political system.

Question 4.
Fundamental Rights and Duties
Answer:
Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties are the salient features of Indian constitution.

Six Fundamental Rights were incorporated in Part – III articles from 12 to 35. They are justiciable and ensures basic freedoms to all Indians.

Eleven fundamental duties were incorporated in Part IV A under article 51 A. They put an Obligation on the citizens to render certain duties in return for the protection they have been enjoying through Fundamental Rights.

Question 5.
Secular state
Answer:
Our constitution stands for a secular state. It does not uphold any particular religion as the official religion of the Indian state. It ensures complete religious freedom to the people it abolishes discrimination between individuals on religious grounds in the matters of employment,’ education and legislation. It prohibits religious instructions’in state-owned or state-aided educational institutions.

Question 6.
Universal Adult Franchise
Answer:
The makers of the Indian constitution provided for the universal adult Franchise for all citizens without any discrimination based on caste, colour, creed, community, language, religion, region, sex, property etc. At the beginning, adult Franchise was given to all .the citizens who attained the age of 21 years. Later voting age was reduced to 18 years through the 61^st constitution Amendment Act in 1988.

Question 7.
Bicameralism
Answer:
The constitution of India introduced Bi-cameralism at the national level. Accordingly, the Indian Parliament consist of two houses namely the Rajya Sabha (upper house) and the Lok Sabha (Lower house). While the Rajya Sabha represents the states, the Lok Sabha represents the people.

Question 8.
Directive principles of state policy
Answer:
Our constitution hinted out certain directive principles as the policy of the state in part IV from Articles from 36 to 51. These principles are drawn from Irish constitution. These principles reflect the welfare state concepts. They are the directions to be followed by the various governments. Though these principles are non-justiciable, No responsible government can afford to ignore them.

Question 9.
Independence of Judiciary
Answer:
The Judiciary performs its functions independently. The legislature of the executive shall not interfere in the working of the judiciary. The Judiciary carries on its obligations according to the constitutional norms and democratic principles.

Question 10.
Preamble [Mar. 18, 17, 16]
Answer:
The Indian constitution begins with a preamble. The preamble clearly defines the objectives of our constitution. It declares India as a sovereign, as a socialist, Secular Democratic Republic. It provides liberty, equality, fraternity and justice. It states that the people of India are the chief sources of the political authority.

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Commerce Study Material 4th Lesson Financial Markets Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Commerce Study Material 4th Lesson Financial Markets

Essay Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is meant by the financial market? Briefly explain its functions and classification.
Answer:
A financial market is a broad term describing any marketplace where buyers and sellers participate in the trade of financial assets such as equities, bonds, currencies, and derivatives. Investors have access to a large number of financial markets and exchanges representing a vast range of financial products. Some of these markets have always been open to private investors; Others remained the exclusive domain of major international banks and financial professionals until the very end of the twentieth century.

Specifically, financial markets play an important role in the allocation of scarce resources in an economy by performing the following four important functions.

1. Mobilisation of savings and channeling them into most productive uses :
A financial market facilitates the transfer of savings from savers to investors. It gives savers to choose different investments and thus helps to channelize surplus funds into the most productive use.

2. Facilitating price discovery:
It is known that the forces of demand, and supply help to establish a price for a commodity or service in the market. In the financial markets, households are suppliers of funds and business firms represent the demand. The interaction between them helps to establish a price for the financial asset which is being traded in that particular market.

3. Providing liquidity to financial assets :
Financial markets facilitate easy purchase and sale of financial assets. In doing so, they provide liquidity to financial assets, so that they can be easily converted into cash whenever required. Holders of assets can readily sell their financial assets through the mechanism of their financial market.

4. Reducing cost of transaction :
Financial markets provide valuable information about securities being, traded in the market. It helps to save time, effort and money that both buyers and sellers of a financial assets would have to otherwise spend to try and find each other. The financial market is thus, a common platform where buyers and sellers can meet for fulfilment of their individual needs.

Financial markets are basically classified, on the basis of the maturity of financial instruments traded.in them, into money market and capital market. The financial instruments with a maturity of less than one year are traded in the money market and with long maturity are traded in the capital market. Furthur, money market is classified primarily into call money market, acceptance market, bill market, collateral loan market, whereas capital market may include both primary market and secondary market.

Question 2.
What is capital market? What is its importance?
Answer:
The term capital market refers to facilities and institutional arrangements through which long term funds, both debt and equity are raised and invested. It consists of series of channels through which savings of the community are made available for industrial and commercial enterprises. The capital market consists of development banks, commercial banks and stock exchanges. The process of economic development is facilitated by the existence of a well organised capital market. In fact, economic growth can be achieved through the development of the financial system. It is essential that financial institutions are sufficiently developed and that market operations are free,, fair, competitive and transparent.

Importance of capital market:
1. Act as a link between savers and investors :
Capital market plays an important role in mobilising the savings and diverting them into productive investment. In this way, it is transferring financial resources from surplus and wasteful areas to deficit and productive areas.

2. Encourage savings :
In the undeveloped countries, there are low savings and those can save often invest their savings in unproductive areas and conspicuous consumption in the absence of a capital market. With the development of a capital market, the financial institutions provide wide, range of instruments which encourages people to save.

3. Encouragement to investors :
Various financial assets like shares, bonds etc., encourage people to put their investment in the industry or lend to government. This can be facilitated by the existence of capital market.

4. Stability in prices :
The capital market tends to stabilise the value of stocks and securities. In the process of stabilisation, it is providing capital to the borrowers at a lower interest rate and discourage investment in speculative and unproductive areas.

5. Promotes economic growth :
The balanced economic growth is possible in any country with, the proper allocation of resources among the’ industries. The capital market not only reflects the general condition of the economy, but also smoothens and accelerate the process of economic growth.

Question 3.
Distinguish between capital and money market.
Answer:
Distinction between capital market and money market.

Question 4.
Define stock exchanges and explain its functions. [A.P. Mar. 17]
Answer:
According to securities contracts Act 1956, a stock exchange is defined as “an association, organisation, or body of individuals, whether incorporated or not, established for the purpose of assisting, regulating and controlling business in buying, selling and dealing in securities”. .

Functions of stock exchange :
1. Ready and continuous market: The stock exchange provides a ready and continuous market for securities. The exchange provides a regular market for trading securities.

2. Protection to investors :
The stock exchange protects the interest of the investors through the enforcement pf rules. The rules of the securities contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 also govern the dealings on stock exchanges.

3. Provides the information to assers the real worth of the securities :
The value of securities is made properly on the stock exchange. This is made by taking into consideration various factors such as present and future competition in securities, financial and general economic conditions. The stock exchange publishes the quotation of different securities on the faith of these quotations every investor knows the worth of his holdings at any time.

4. Provides liquidity of investment:
The stock exchange is a market for existing securities. This market is continuously available for the conversion of securities into cash and vice-versa. Persons who are not in need of hard cash can dispose off their securities easily.

5. Helps in raising capital:
There is always demand for additional capital from the existing concerns. The demandis met through the issue of shares. Stock exchange provides a ready market for such shares.

6. Raising public debt:
The increasing government’s role in economic development has necessiated the raising of huge amounts and stock exchange provides a plat form for raising public debt.

7. Listing of securities :
The company which wants its shares to be traded on stock exchange should list their securities by applying to the stock exchange authorities giving all the details regarding capital structure, management etc.

8. Encourage savings habit:
Stock exchange creates the habit of saving and investing among the members in the public. It leads to investment of their funds in corporate and government securities. In this way it contributes to the capital formation.

9. Economic barometer:
The pulse of the market can be known by its stock indices. The prevailing economic conditions effect the share prices. So, stock exchanges can be called as economic barometer.

10. Improve the company’s performances :
In stock exchanges only those securities are traded which are listed. The stock exchanges exercises influence over the management of the company.

Question 5.
Explain the objectives and functions of SEBI.
Answer:
The Securities Exchange .Board of India (SEBI) was established by the Government of India in April 1988 as interim administrative body to promote orderly and healthy growth of securities market and for investors protection. The SEBI was given a statutory status in 1992 Jan through an ordinance.

Objectives of SEBI:
The following are the objectives of SEBI.

1. To regulate stock exchanges and the securities market to promote their orderly functioning.
2. To protect the rights and interests of the investors, particularly individual investors by guiding and educating them.
3. To prevent trading malpractices and achieve a balance between self regulation by the securities industry and its statutory regulation.
4. To regulate and develop a code of conduct and fair practices by intermediaries like brokers, merchant bankers etc. with a view to making them competitive and professional.

Functions of SEBI:
SEBI was enturusted with the twin task of both regulation and development of the securities market. It has certain protective functions.

A. Regulatory functions:

1. Registration of brokers, sub-brokers and other players in the market.
2. Registration of collective investment schemes and mutual funds.
3. Regulation of stock brokers, portfolio exchanges, underwriters and merchant bank¬ers and the business of stock exchange and any other securities market.
4. Regulation of takeover bids by companies.
5. Calling for information by undertaking inspection, conducting enquiries and au¬dits of stock exchanges and intermediaries.
6. Levying fee or other charges for carrying out the purposes of the Act.
7. Performing and exercising such power under securities contracts (Regulation) Act 1956, as may be delegated by the Government of India.

B. Development Functions :

1. Training for intermediaries of the securities market.
2. Conducting research and publishing information useful to all market participants.
3. Under taking measures to develop the capital markets by adapting a flexible ap-proach.

C. Protective functions:

1. Prohibition of fraudulent and unfair practices like making misleading statements, manipulations, price rigging etc.
2. Controlling insider trading and imposing penalties for such practices.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What are the different components of money market?
Answer:
The following are the basic components of money market.
1. Call Money Market:
It is an important sub market of Indian money market. It is also known money at call and money at short notice. It is also called as Inter bank loan market. In this market money is demanded for extremely short period. The duration of such transaction is from few hours to 15 days. It is basically located in industrial and commercial locations such as Mumbai, Calcutta, Delhi etc. These transactions help stock brokers and dealers to fulfill theif financial requirements. The rate at which money is made available is called as a call rate. The rate is fixed by the market forces such as demand for and supply of money.

2. Acceptance market:
A market consisting primarily of short term instruments of credit typically used by exporters in getting paid more quickly for their exported goods.

3. Bill market:
Bill market is meant for short term bills. It includes commercial bills and treasury bills. It helps the government by marketing of treasury bills and helps other sectors also.

4. Collateral Load Market:
It is an important section of the money market, which takes the form of loans, O.D.S and Cash credits. These advances are covered by collaterates like government securities, gold, silver, stocks and merchandise etc.

Question 2.
Explain the various money market instruments. .
Answer:
The following are some of the important money market instruments.

1. Treasury bills :
A treasury bill is basically an instrument of short term borrowings by the Government of India maturing is less than one year. They are also known as zero coupon bonds issued by RBI on behalf of Central Government to meet its short term requirements of funds. The purchase price is less than face value. At maturity the government will pay full face value.

2. Commercial paper:
Commercial paper is a short term unsecured promissory note, negotiable and transferable by endorsement and delivery with a fixed maturity period. It is issued by large and credit worthy companies to raise short-term funds at lower rates of interest than market rates. It is usually has a maturity period of 15 days to one year. It is sold at discount and redeemable at par. The original purpose of commercial paper was to provide short term funds for seasonal and working capital needs. Companies use this instrument for the purpose such as brige financing.

3. Call money :
Call money is a short term finance repayable on demand, with a maturity period of one day to fifteen days, used for inter bank transactions. Commercial banks have to maintain a minimum cash balance known as cash reserve ratio. Call money is a method by which banks borrow from each other to be able to maintain the cash reserve ratio. The interest rate paid on call money loans is known as the call rate. It is highly volatile rate that varies from day-to-day and sometimes even from hour-to-hour also.

4. Certificate of deposit:
Certificate of deposit are unsecured, negotiable, short¬term instruments in bearer form, issued by commercial banks and developed financial institutions. They can be issued to individuals, corporations and companies during periods of tight liquidity when the deposit growth of banks is slow but the demand for credit is high. They help to mobilise a large amount of money for short periods. The return on the certificate is higher than the treasury bills because it assumes a higher level of risk.

5. Commercial bill:
A commercial bill is a bill of exchange used to finance the working capital requirements of business firms. It is a short, negotiable, self liquidating instrument which is used to finance the credit sales of firms. The seller draws a bill on the buyer.

When it is accepted, it is called trade bill and becomes marketable instrument. These bills can be discounted with a bank if the seller needs funds before the bill natures. When trade bill accepted by a commercial bank, it is known as commercial bill.

6. Collateral loan :
Commercial banks provides loans against the government securities and bonds.

Question 3.
Explain the capital market instruments.
Answer:
The following are the capital market instruments.
1. Secured Premium Notes (SPN):
It is a secured debenture redeemable at premium issued along with a debenture warrant, redeemable after a notice period, say four to seven years. The warrants attached to SPN gives the’holder a right to apply and get allotted equity shares, provided the SPN is fully paid.

2. Deep discount bonds :
A bond that sells at a significant discount and redeemable at par at the time of maturity. They are designed to meet the long term funds requirements of the issuer and investors who are not looking for immediate return and can be sold with a long maturity of 25 – 30 years.

3. Equity shares with detachable warrants:
A warrant is issued by a company entitling the holder to buy a given number of shares at a stipulated price during a specified period. The warrants are separately registered with stock exchange and traded separately.

4. Fully convertible debentures with interest:
This is a debt instrument that is fully converted into equity shares over a specified period. The conversion can be in one or several phases. When the instrument is pure debt instrument, interest is paid to the investor. After conversion, interest payments peases on the portion that is converted.

5. Sweat equity shares :
These equity shares are issued by the company to employees or directors on favourable terms, in recognition of their services. Sweat equity usually takes the form of giving options to employees to buy the shares of the company, so they become part owners and participate in the profits, apart from earning salary.

6. Disaster bonds :
Also known as catastrophe or CAT bonds. Disaster bonds is a high yield debt instrument that is usually insurance linked and meant to raise money in case of a catastrophy. It has a special condition which states that if the issuer (Insurance or Reinsurance Company) suffers a loss from a particular pre-defined catastrophy, then issues obligation pay interest and/or repay the principle is either deferred or completely forgiven.

7. Foreign currency convertible bonds :
A convertible bond is a mix between a debt and equity instrument. It is bond having a regular coupon and principal payments and also take the advantage of any large price appreciation in stock, due to equity side of the bond.

8. Derivatives:
A derivative is a financial instrument whose value and characteristics denend on characteristics and value of some underlying asset, typically commodity, bond,r, currency, index etc.

Question 4.
Distinction between Primary and Secondary market.
Answer:
The following are the differences between primary market and secondary market.

Question 5.
What do you know about BSE and NSE? [A.P. Mar. 17]
Answer:
Bombay Stock Exchange :
The first stock exchange was established as ‘Native Share and Stock Brokers Association’ at Bombay in 1875, the predecessor of the present day Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE). BSE is located in Dalai street, Mumbai, which is Asia’s first stock exchange and one of India’s leading exchange groups. Over the past 140 years, BSE has facilitated the growth of Indian corporate sector by providing it an efficient capital raising platform. In 1956, the BSE became the first stock exchange to be recognised by the Indian Government under the securities contracts Regulation Act, 1956. It is 4^th largest stock exchange in Asia and the 9th largest in the world. More than 5000 companies are listed in BSE making it World No. 1 exchange in terms of listed securities.

National Stock Exchange (NSE) :
The most important development in the Indian Stock market was the establishment of the National Stock Exchange (NSE). It is the latest and most modem technology driven exchange. It was incorporated on 27^th November 1992 and was recognised as stock exchange in April 1993. It started operations in 1994, with trading on the whole sale debt market segment. It launched capital market segment in Nov. 1994 as trading plantform for equities and the futures and options segment in June 2000 for various derivative instruments. NSE has been able to take the stock market to the door step of the investors. It has provided a nation-wide screen based automated trading system with high degree of transparency and equal access to investors irrespective of geographical location.

Question 6.
Briefly explain about depository and dematerialisation.
Answer:
Depository:
Just like a bank keeps money in safe custody for customers, a depository is also like a bank and keeps all securities in electronic form on behalf of the investor. In the depository, a securities account can be opened, all shares can be deposited, they can be withdrawn / sold at any time and instruction to deliver or receive shares on behalf of investor can be given. It is a technology driven electronic storage system. It has no paper work relating to share certificates, transfer forms etc. All transactions of the investors and settled with greater speed, efficiency and all securities are entered in a book entry made.

Dematerialisation:
All trading in securities is now done through computer terminals. Since all systems are computerised, buying and selling of securities are settled through an electronic book entry form. This is mainly done to eliminate problems like theft, fake / forged transfers, transfer delays and paper work associated with share certificates or debentures held in physical form.

In this process securities held by the investor in physical form are cancelled and the investor is given an electronic entry or number so that he can hold it as an electronic balance in an account. The process of holding securities in an electronic form is called dematerialisation. For this the investor has to open a demat account with an organisation called depository. In fact, now all initial public offers are issued in dematerialised form.

Question 7.
What is index? Explain any two popular indices in our country.
Answer:
A stock market index is a barometer of market behaviour. It measures overall market sentiment through a set of stocks that are representative of the market. It reflects market direction and indicate day-to-day fluctuations in stock prices. An ideal index number must represent changes in the prices of securities and reflect price movement of typical shares for better market representation. If the index rises, it indicates that the market is doing well and Vice-Versa. In Indian market the BSE – SENSEX and NSE – Nifty are important indices.

SENSEX (Sensitive Index) :
SENSEX is the bench mark index of the BSE. The BSE sensex is also called the BSE-30. Scince the BSE has been the leading exchange of the Indian secondary market, the sensex has been an important indicator of the indian stock market. It is most frequently used indicator while reporting on the state of the market. The SENSEX, launched in 1986 is made up of 30 of the most actively traded stocks in the market. They represent 13 sectors of the economy and’are leaders in their respective industries. The index with a base year of 1978-79, the value base year was 100.

NIFTY:
NIFTY is an index of NSE, which computed from performance of top stocks from different sectors listed in NSE. NIFTY stands for National Stock Exchanges Fifty. It consists of 50 companies from 24 different sectors. The companies which form index of nifty may vary from time to time based on many factors considered by NSE. The base year for index is 1995 – 96 with the base value as 1000.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Financial Market.
Answer:
A financial market is a broad term describing any market place where buyers and sellers participate in the trade of financial assets such as equities, bonds, currencies and derivatives.

Question 2.
Classification of financial market.
Answer:
Financial markets are basically classified on the basis of maturity of financial instruments traded in them, into money market and capital market. The financial instruments with a maturity of less than one year are traded in money market and with longer maturity are traded in the capital market.

Question 3.
Money Market.
Answer:
The money market is a market for short term funds which deals in monetary assets whose period of maturity is up to one year. The market facilitates raising of short-term funds for meeting temporary shortage of cash and obligations and deployment of excess funds for earning returns.

Question 4.
Capital Market.
Answer:
The term capital market refers to facilities and institutional arrangements through which longterm funds, both debt and equity are raised and invested. It consists of series of channels. Through which savings of the community are made available for industrial and commercial purposes.

Question 5.
Primary Market.
Answer:
It is also known as the new issue market. It deals with new securities being issued for the first time. The essential function of primary market is to facilitate the transfer of investible funds from savers to entrepreneurs.

Question 6.
Secondary Market.
Answer:
It is also known as the stock market or stock exchange. It is a market for the purchase and sale of existing securities. It helps existing investors to disinvest and fresh investors to enter into the market. It provides liquidity and marketability to existing securities.

Question 7.
Treasury Bills.
Answer:
A treasury bills is an instrument of short term borrowing by Government of India maturing in less than one year. These are issued by RBI on behalf of Goyemment to meet its short term requirements. The purchase price is-less than face value and at maturity govt, will pay full face value.

Question 8.
Commercial Papers.
Answer:
Commercial paper is a short-term unsecured promissory note, negotiable and transferable by endorsement and delivery with a fixed maturity period. It is issued by large and credit worthy companies to raise short-term funds at lower rates of interest than market rates.

Question 9.
Certificate of Deposit.
Answer:
Certificates of deposits are unsecured, negotiable short-term instruments in bearer form, issued by commercial banks and developed financial institutions. They can be issued to individuals, corporations during periods of tight liquidity when deposit growth of banks slow and demand for credit is high.

Question 10.
OTCEI.
Answer:
The Over The Counter Exchange of India (OTCEI) is a company incorporated under companies Act, to provide small and medium companies to access to the capital market for raising finance in a cost effective manner. It is also meant to provide investors with a convenient, transparent and efficient avenue for capital market investment.

Question 11.
Dematerialisation. [A.P. Mar. 17]
Answer:
It is a process where securities held by investor in the physical form are cancelled and the investor is given an electronic entry so that he can hold it as an electronic balance in an account. This process of holding securities in an electronic form is called dematerialisation. ‘

Question 12.
Depository.
Answer:
Just like a bank keeps money is safe custody for customers, a depository keep securities in electronic form on behalf of investors. In the depository a securities account is opened and all shares deposited and sold at any time, an instruction to deliver and receive shares on behalf of investors given.

Question 13.
SENSEX. [A.P. Mar. 17]
Answer:
BSE sensex is called BSE-30. Since BSE has been the leading exchange of the Indian secondary market, SENSEX is an important indicator of the Indian Stock Market. SENSEX which was launched in 1986 is madeup of 30 of the most actively traded stocks in the market.

Question 14.
NIFTY.
Answer:
NIFTY stands for National Stock exchange 50. It is an index computed from the performance of top stocks from different sector listed in NSE. NIFTY consists of 50 companies from 24 different sectors. The companies which form index of NIFTY may vary from time to time based on many factors Considered by NSE.

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Commerce Study Material 2nd Lesson Domestic and International Trade Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Commerce Study Material 2nd Lesson Domestic and International Trade

Essay Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is trade? Explain different types of trade.
Answer:
Trade means buying and selling goods or services between two persons or two business organizations or two countries. Trade is broadly classified into two types.

1. Domestic trade
2. Foreign or international trade.

1. Domestic trade :
Buying and selling of goods take place between the individuals of the same country. The buyer and seller live in the same country. It is also called as

Home trade or internal trade on the basis of the scale of operations, internal trade can be classified into two types. They are

i) Wholesale trade
ii) Retail trade.

i) Wholesale trade:
Buying and selling goods in relatively large quantities is called ‘wholesale trade’. A person who is involved in wholesale trade is called a wholesaler. A wholesaler buys goods in large quantities from the manufacturers and sells in relatively smaller quantities to the retailers. So, he is the connecting link between producers and the retailers.

ii) Retail trade :
Retailing means the sale of goods in small quantities to the consumers. A person engaged in retail trade is called a retailer. Retailers buys goods from wholesalers and sells them in relatively smaller quantities to the final consumers. Retailers established link between wholesalers and consumers.

2. Foreign trade or International trade :
The trade takes place between nations is international trade. So, goods or services exchanged between the traders of two nations is called foreign trade.
Foreign trade can be divided into three types. They are :

i) Import trade
ii) Export trade
iii) Entrepot trade.

i) Import trade :
The term import is derived from the conceptual meaning as to bring in the goods and services in the port of the country. When purchases are made from another country, goods are said to be imported from that country to the buyer’s country. For example, China has most modem technology for producing electronic products cheaply. So our country is importing those products.

ii) Export trade :
The term export is derived from the conceptual meaning as to ship the goods and services out of the port of the country. When the goods are sold to a trader in another country, goods are said to be exported to that country by the seller country. For example, India is a major exporter of tea to another countries.

iii) Entrepot trade :
When goods are imported into a country, not for consumption in that country, but for exporting them to a third country, it is known as ‘Entrepot trade’. For example, India importing oil seeds from USA and exporting the same to Malaysia.

Question 2.
What is international trade? Various types of international trade? [A.P Mar. 17]
Answer:
The trade that takes place between nations is international trade. The exchange of goods and services between the traders of two nations is international trade. International trade involves the exchange of not only goods but also currencies between nations. International trade is the process of transferring goods produced by one country for the mers in another country.
Senior Inter

The international trade can be divided into three types. They are :

1. Import trade
2. Export trade
3. Entrepot trade.

1) Import trade :
The term import is derived from the conceptual meaning as to bring in the goods and services into the port city of the country. When purchases are made from another country, goods are said to be imported from that country to the buyer’s country. For example, Japan has the most modem technology for producing the electronic products cheaply, so we import these products to our country.

2) Export trade :
The term export is derived from the conceptual meaning as to ship the goods and services out of the port of the country. When goods are sold to a trader in another country, goods are exported to that country by the seller’s country. For example, India is a major exporter of tea because of fertile land in Assam and Darjeeling, so we export tea products to another countries.

3) Entrepot trade :
When goods are imported into a country, not for consumption in that country, but for exporting them to a third country, it is known as ‘Entrepot trade’.
e.g.: India importing wheat from U.S aftd exporting the same to SriLanka.

Question 3.
What is international trade? Explain its importance.
Answer:
The trade that takes place between the countries is called international trade. The exchange of goods and services between the traders of two countries is international trade. International trade involves not only the exchange of goods but also currencies between nations. International trade is the process of transferring goods produced in one country for the consumers pf another country. This is also called as Foreign trade or External trade. Due to globalisation development of means of communication and transport, the international trade has opened the way to huge imports and exports.

Importance of international trade:
Foreign trade becomes necessary to every country because no country is capable of producing everything for the consumption of its people and the development of its economy. Hence foreign trade is necessary on the following grounds.

1. Different countries of the world have different natural resources. But some countries may not possess such mineral wealth. Therefore, one country has to depend on some other country for natural resources which results in need of foreign trade.
2. Some countries are more suitably placed to produce some goods more economically due to availability of raw materials, labour, technical know-how etc. Than the other countries. In such case, foreign trade is needed to import goods from those countries where they can be produced cheaply instead of producing goods at higher cost.
3. It is not possible for any country to produce all her needs. Production of different commodities require different climatic conditions. For example Cuba can produce sugar, Egypt can produce cotton etc. Foreign trade among these countries helps all these countries to get all their requirements.
4. International trade has reduced inequalities and facilitated growth of economy in different countries.
5. International trade lowers the prices of goods and services all over the world.
6. International trade promotes increased international understanding, exchange of ideas and culture and world peace.
7. In the era of globalisation, no economy in the world can remain cut off from the rest of the world. Therefore, every country has to depend upon some other country or other.

Question 4.
Distinguish between Home trade and Foreign trade.
Answer:
Home trade :
A trade which is carried on within the country is known as Internal trade or Home trade or Domestic trade. The home trade takes place within the geographical boundaries of a nation.

Foreign trade :
A trade which is carried on with other countries is known as foreign trade or external trade or international trade. Foreign trade refers to buying and selling of goods and services between the countries.

The following are the differences between Home trade and Foreign trade.

Question 5.
Explain the limitations and problems of international trade.
Answer:
The exchange of goods and services between the nations is called international trade. It has certain limitations and problems. The following are the limitations of international trade.

1. Economic interdependence is gained from international trade. In case of war. or any other political dead lock, it creates a crisis.
2. Industrialisation of developing countries may be adversely affected by unrestricted imports.
3. Foreign trade leads to unhealthy competition among the countries, creating rivarly between them.
4. The concept of comparative cost principle which lead to rigid specialisation in a few countries may create many difficulties.
5. International trade may lead to lopsided or partial development at the cost of neglect of certain sectors of the economy.

Problems of Foreign trade :
1) Currency problems:
Payment between the countries create complications because every country has its own currency. To avoid losses in transactions the rate of exchange has to be carefully determined.

2) Legal problems:
Laws and customs regulations are affecting the import and export trade because every country has its own laws, customs regulations. These regulations stand in the way of smooth inflow and outflow of goods.

3) Credit problems :
The exporter has to take special steps to ascertain the credit worthiness of the buyer as there is no direct contact between the exporter and importer.

4) Greater risk :
In foreign trade goods are to be exported to long distances. So exporting the goods creates greater risk.

5) Time gap :
In foreign trade there is a wide gap between the time when the goods are despatched and the time when the goods are received and paid.

Question 6.
What is SEZ? Explain their objectives.
Answer:
Special Economic Zones (SEZ) is a geographical region that has economic laws that are more liberal than a country’s economic laws. The main aim of the SEZ is to attract larger foreign investments. It is intended to make SEZs as engines for economic growth. The SEZ Act was passed by parliament in May 2005. A SEZ Act is specifically described as duty free enclave deemed to be a foreign territory for the purpose of trade operations. Objectives : The following are the objectives of special economic zones.

• To create employment opportunities.
• To generate additional economic activity.
• To promote export of goods and services.
• To develop infrastructural facilities.
• To promote investment from domestic and foreign sources.
• To import capital goods and raw materials duty free.
• To create foreign territory for the purpose of trade operations and tariffs.
• To allow 100% foreign direct investment for developing township.
• To exempt import duties and service tax.
• To get wide range of income tax benefits.

Question 7.
Explain the main advantages of SEZs. [A.P. Mar. 17]
Answer:
Special economic zones is a new incarnation of export processing zone. The main aim of the special economic zone is to attract large foreign investments. Special economic zones acts like an engine for economic growth. The SEZ Act was passed by parliament in May 2005. Special economic zones aims to create employment opportunities and infrastructure facilities along with promotion of exports. Special economic zones aimed at importing capital goods and raw materials duty free.

Advantages :
The following major benefits can be attributed to Special Economic Zones (SEZ).
i) Employment generation :
Special Economic Zones considered to be highly effect tools for job creation.

ii) Economic development :
India can be made as tranformed economy if special economic zones are implemented properly, because special economic zones are engines for economic development.

iii) Growth of labour intensive manufacturing industry :
Establishment of special economic zones may lead to faster growth of labour intensive manufacturing and service industry in the country.

iv) Balanced regional development:
Special economic zones are beautifully crafted initiatives for achieving balanced regional development.

v) Capacity building :
Special economic zones are necessary for stronger capacity building.

vi) Export promotion :
Special economic zones induce dynamism in the export performance of a country by eliminating a) Distortions resulting from tariffs and other trade barriers, b) The corporate tax system and excessive bureaucracy.

Question 8.
Describe the criticism labeled against SEZs.
Answer:
The following are the disadvantages of SEZ.

1) Special economic zones are criticised on many grounds. The first major criticism against special economic zone is forcible acquisition of agricultural land. This displaces many people from their traditional livelihood and employment sources such as farming, fishing etc. SEZs are encouraging real estate speculation. Small and marginal farmers, weaving and livestock rearing communities are away from their professions due to SEZs.

2) The special economic zones are not only dispossessing people from resources but also from democracy and governance. There has been a criticism regarding the governance model of special economic zones and their accountability. The problem of special economic zone is that there would be no democratic local governance institutions.

3) Special economic zones are also criticised for payment of meager and inadequate compensation and rehabilitation measures to the displaced. There are several environmental and health problems in the establishment of special economic zones. The SEZ Act is completely on environmental concerns.

4) Special economic zones are to be established in backward areas for bringing balanced regional development. But it has not happened. Majority of the units are located nearer to larger cities.

Question 9.
What are the incentives provided in the APSEZs?
Answer:
Andhra Pradesh Special Economic Zone (APSEZ), a multi-product SEZ is designated as duty free enclave and treated as foreign territory for trade operations, duties and tariff. It serves as a global gateway for industrial growth and offers world class infrastructure and support services, it also offers attractive financial and tax incentives and procedural ease for facilitating foreign direct investment.

The Government of Andhra Pradesh is encouraging new entrepreneurs by offering various following incentives.

1. Exemption from duties and excise.
2. 50% of new capital i.e. invested in last 5 years.
3. Avial international funds and interest rates.
4. Reimbursement of duty paid on fumance oil, procured from domestic companies to SEZ units as per the rate of drawback notified by the Directorate General of Foreign Trade.
5. Commodity hedging by SEZ units are permitted.
6. FU11 freedom for subcontracting abroad.
7. Job work on behalf of domestic exporters for direct export is allowed.
8. In house customs clearance.
9. 100% F.D.I
10. Benefits from A.R Industrial Policy 2010- 2015.
11. Stamp duty waiver.
12. Vat, Sales tax, Octroil etc. Exemptions.
13. Electricity subsidy.
14. Single window clearance system at state level.
15. Lowest industrial power tariff amongst the industrially progressed states in the

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define wholesaler?
Answer:
Wholesale trade means buying and selling the goods in relatively large quantities or in bulk and the traders who engaged in the wholesale trade are called wholesalers. A wholesaler buys goods in large quantities from manufacturers and sells them in small lots to retailers or industrial users. A wholesaler is the first intermediary and serves as a link between producers and retailers.

Question 2.
Who is retailer?
Answer:
Trader who is engaged in retail trade is called retailer. A retailer is the last link in the chain of distribution of goods. He is an intermediary between the wholesaler and consumers. He purchases goods from wholesaler and sells in very small quantities to ultimate consumers. His activities are generally confined to the locality in which his shop is located. Big departmental stores, super bazar, hawkers and other small shopkeepers are examples of retailers.

Question 3.
What is meant by internal trade?
Answer:
A trade which takes place within the country is known as internal or domestic trade.

Buying and selling of goods takes place within the boundaries of the same country. Trade goods are carried from one place to another place through railways and roadways. Payment for goods and services is made in the currency of the home country. There is wide chance of the goods available and it involves transaction between producers, middlemen and consumers.

Question 4.
What is import trade?
Answer:
The term import is derived from the conceptual meaning as to bring in the goods and services into the port of the country. When purchases are made from another country, goods are said to be imported from that country to the buyer’s country.

For example :
Chaina has the most modem technology for producing electronic products cheaply and India is importing these products.

Question 5.
What is meant by SEZ?
Answer:
Special Economic Zones (SEZ) is a geographical region that has the economic laws that are more liberal than country’s economic laws. The main aim of SEZ is to attract large foreign investments. It is intended to make SEZ as engines for economic growth. The SEZ Act was passed by the Parliament in May 2005. A SEZ is specifically described as duty free enclave deemed to be a foreign territory for the purpose of trade operations.

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 2nd Year Physics Study Material 15th Lesson Semiconductor Electronics: Material, Devices and Simple Circuits Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 2nd Year Physics Study Material 15th Lesson Semiconductor Electronics: Material, Devices and Simple Circuits

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is an n-type semiconductor? What are the majority and minority charge carriers in it?
Answer:
If a pentavalent impurity is added to a pure tetravalent semiconductor, it is called an n-type semiconductor.
In n-type semiconductor majority, of charge carriers are electrons and the minority charge carriers are holes.

Question 2.
What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors? (A.P. Mar. ’15)
Answer:
Pure form of semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors.
When impure atoms are added to increase their conductivity, they are called extrinsic semiconductors.

Question 3.
What is a p-type semiconductor ? What are the majority and minority charge carriers in it?
Answer:
If a trivalent impurity is added to a tetravalent semiconductor, it is called p-type semi-conductor.
In p-type semiconductor majority charge carriers are holes and minority charge carriers are electrons.

Question 4.
What is a p-n junction diode ? Define depletion layer. (T.S. Mar. ’19)
Answer:
When an intrinsic semiconductor crystal is grown with one side doped with trivalent element and on the other side doped with pentavalent element, a junction is formed in the crystal. It is called p-n junction diode.

A thin narrow region is formed on either side of the p-n junction, which is free from charge carriers is called depletion layer.

Question 5.
How is a battery connected to a junction diode in

1. forward and
2. reverse bias ?

Answer:

1. In p-n junction diode, if p-side is connected to positive terminal of a cell and n-side to negative terminal, it is called forward bias.
   
2. In a p-n junction diode, p-side is connected to negative terminal of a cell and n-side to positive terminal, it is called reverse bias.

Question 6.
What is the maximum percentage of rectification in half wave and full wave rectifiers ?
Answer:

1. The percentage of rectification in half-wave rectifier is 40.6%.
2. The percentage of rectification in full-wave rectifier is 81.2%.

Question 7.
What is Zener voltage (V_z) and how will a Zener diode be connected in circuits generally ?
Answer:

1. When Zener diode is in reverse biased, at a particular voltage current increases suddenly is called Zener (or) break down voltage.
2. Zener diode always connected in reverse bias.

Question 8.
Write the expressions for the efficiency of a full wave rectifier and a half wave rectifier.
Answer:

1. Efficiency of half wave rectifier (η) = \(\frac{0.406 \mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}{\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{f}}+\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}\)
2. Efficiency of full wave rectifier (η) = \(\frac{0.812 \mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}{\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{f}}+\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}\)

Question 9.
What happens to the width of the depletion layer in a p-n junction diode when it is
i) forward-biased and
ii) reverse biased ?
Answer:
When a p-n junction diode is forward bias, thickness of depletion layer decreases and in reverse bias, thickness of depletion layer increases.

Question 10.
Draw the circuit symbols for p-n-p and n-p-n transistors. (Mar. 14) (A.P. Mar. 19; T.S. Mar. 16)
Answer:

Question 11.
Deflne amplifier and amplification factor.
Answer:

1. Rising the strength of a weak signal is known as amplification and the device is called amplifier.
2. Amplification factor is the ratio between output voltage to the input voltage.
   A = \(\frac{\mathrm{V}_0}{\mathrm{~V}_{\mathrm{i}}}\)

Question 12.
In which bias can a Zener diode be used as voltage regulator ?
Answer:
In reverse bias Zener diode can be used as voltage regulator.

Question 13.
Which gates ae called universal gates ?
Answer:
NAND gate and NOR gates are called universal gates.

Question 14.
Write the truth table of NAND gate. How does it differ from AND gate.
Answer:

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What are n-type and p-type semiconductors? How is a semiconductor junction formed?
Answer:
n-type semiconductor : When a pure semiconductor is droped with pentavalent atoms like Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth, then n-type semiconductor is formed.

p-type semiconductor: When a pure semiconductor is doped with trivalent atoms like Indium, Gallium. Al, p-type semiconductor is formed.

Formation of p-n junction diode: When p-type and n-type semiconductors are formed side by side at the junction, holes from p side diffuse to the n -side and electrons from n -side to p-side.

Hence positive charge is built in n-side and negative charge is established at the p-side.
At the junction, the electrons and holes recombine and the region is free from charge carriers. This region which is free from charge carriers is called depletion layer.

The potential developed near the p-n junction is called barrier potential.
The potential barrier stops further diffusion of holes and electrons across the junction.

Question 2.
Discuss the behaviour of p-n junction. How does a potential barrier develop at the junction ?
Answer:
When p-n junction is formed, the free electrons on n-side diffuse over to p-side, they combine with holes and become neutral. Similarly holes on p-side diffuse over to n-side and combine with electrons become neutral.

This results in a narrow region formed on either side of the junction. This region is called depletion layer. Depletion layer is free from charge carriers.

The n-type material near the junction becomes positively charged due to immobile donor ions and p-type material becomes negatively charged due to immobile acceptor ions. This creates an electric field near the junction directed from n-region to p-region and causes a potential barrier.

The potential barrier stops further diffusion of holes and electrons across the junction. The value of the potential barrier depends upon the nature of the crystal, its temperature and the amount of doping.

Question 3.
Draw and explain the current-voltage (I -V) characteristic curves of a junction diode in forward and reverse bias.
Answer:
A graph is drawn between the applied voltage (V) and the current (I) passing through the p-n junction diode is called characteristics of a diode.

As forward bias voltage is increased potential barrier decreases, but initially increases in current is negligible (region OA). This is due to the potential barrier.

The voltage at which the current starts to increase rapidly is called knee voltage (or) cut in voltage.

In this reverse bias, small current flows in the circuit due to minority charge carriers. 1f the reverse voltage is increased further, after some voltage, there will be a sudden rise of reverse current. This region is named as breakdown region.

Question 4.
Describe how a semiconductor diode is used as a half wave rectifier. (Mar. ’14) (T.S. & A.P. Mar. ’16)
Answer:

1. A half wave rectifier can be constructed with a single diode. The ac input signal is fed to the primary coil of a transformer. The output .signal is taken across the load resistance R_L
2. During positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and current flows through the diode.
3. During negative half cycle, diode is reverse biased and no current flows through the load resistance.
4. This means current flows through the diode only during positive half cycles and negative half cycles are blocked. Hence in the output we get only positive half cycles.
5. Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output dc power to the input ac power.
   η = \(\frac{\mathrm{P}_{\mathrm{dc}}}{\mathrm{P}_{\mathrm{ac}}}\) = \(\frac{0.406 \mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}{\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{f}}+\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}\)
   where r_f = Forward resistance of a diode; R_L = Load resistance
   The maximum efficiency of half wave rectifier is 40.6%.

Question 5.
What is rectification ? Explain the working of a full wave rectifier. (T. S. Mar. 19: A.P. & T.S. Mar. ’15)
Answer:
Rectification : The process of converting on alternating current into a direct current is called rectification.
The device used for this purpose is called rectifier.

1. A full wave rectifier can be constructed with the help of two diodes D₁ and D₂.
2. The secondary transformer is centre tapped at C and its ends are connected to the p regions of two diodes D₁ & D₂.
3. The output voltage is measured across the load resistance R_L.
4. During positive half cycles of ac, the diode D₁ is forward biased and current flows through the load resistance R_L. At this time D₂ will be reverse biased and will be in switch off position.
5. During negative half cycles of ac, the diode D₂ is forward biased and the current flows through R_L. At this time D₁ will be reverse biased and will be in switch off position.
6. Hence positive output is obtained for all the input ac signals.
7. The efficiency of a rectifier is defined as the ratio between the output dc power to the input ac power.
   η = \(\frac{\mathrm{P}_{\mathrm{dc}}}{\mathrm{P}_{\mathrm{ac}}}\) = \(\frac{0.812 \mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}{\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{f}}+\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}\)
   The maximum efficiency of a full wave rectifier is 81.2%

Question 6.
Distinguish between half-wave and full-wave rectifiers. (A.P. Mar. ’19)
Answer:
Half wave rectifier

1. Single diode is used.
2. Only half wave is rectified.
3. Rectifier efficiency η = \(\frac{0.406 \mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}{\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{f}}+\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}\)
4. Efficiency of half wave rectifier is 40.6%.
5. Output is discontinuous and pulsative.

Full wave rectifier

1. Two diodes are used.
2. Full wave is rectified.
3. Rectifier efficiency η = \(\frac{0.812 \mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}{\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{f}}+\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}\)
4. Efficiency of full wave rectifier is 81.2%.
5. Output is continuous and pulsative.

Question 7.
Distinguish between zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown.
Answer:
Zèner break down

1. Zener break down occurs at heavily doped diodes.
2. This occurs at low reverse bias voltages.
3. This occurs due to field emissîon.
4. Width of depletion layer is small.

Avalanche break down

1. Avalanche break down occurs at lightly doped diodes.
2. This occurs at high reverse bias voltages.
3. This occurs due to ionisation by collision.
4. Width of depletion layer is also small.

Question 8.
Explain hole conduction in intrinsic semiconductors.
Answer:
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. At low temperature, valency band is filled with electrons and conduction band is empty. Hence it acts as an insulator at low temperature.

As temperature increases electrons in valence band get energy and jumps into the conduction band crossing the forbidden band. At their places in the valency band a vacancy is created.

This vacancy of electron in the valency band is called a hole. Hole has positive charge and move only in the valency band; giving hole current.

In this Fermi-energy level will be at the middle of the forbidden band.

Question 9.
What is a photodiode ? Explain its working with a circuit diagram and draw its I-V characteristics.
Answer:
Photodiode : Photodiode is an optoelectronic device in which current carriers are generated by photons through photo excitation.

Working : When visible light of energy greater than forbidden energy gap is incident on a reverse biased p-n juncton photodiode, additional electron-hole pairs are created in the depletion layer (near the junction). These charge carriers will be seperated by the junction field and made to flow across the junction. Creating a reverse current across the junction.

The value of reverse saturation current increases with the increase in the intensity of incident light.
V-I characteristics of photodiode is shown in figure. It is found that reverse saturation current through the photodiode varies almost linearly with the light flux.

Uses :

1. It is used in switching the light ON and OFF.
2. It is used in demodulation in optical signals.

Question 10.
Explain the working of LED and what are its advantages over conventional incandescent low power lamps.
Answer:
Light emitting diode (LED) : It is a photoelectronic device which converts electrical energy into light energy.
It is a heavily doped p-n junction diode which under forward bias emits spontaneous radiation. The diode is covered with a transparent cover so that the emitted light may be come out.

Working ; When p-n junction diode is forward biased, the movement of majority charge carriers takes place across the junction. The electrons move from n-side to p-side through the junction and holes move from p-side to n-side.
As a result of it, concentration of majority carriers increases rapidly at the junction.

When there is no bias across the junction, therefore there are excess minority carriers on either side of the junction, which recombine wito majority carriers near the junction.

On recombination of electrons and hole, die energy is given out in the form of heat and light.

Advantages of LED’S over incandescent lamp:

1. LED is cheap and easy to handle.
2. LED has less power and low operational voltage.
3. LED has fast action and requires no warm up time.
4. LED can be used in burglar alarm system.

Question 11.
Explain the working of a solar cell and draw Its I-V characteristics.
Answer:
Solar cell is a p-n junction device which converts solar energy into electric energy.

It consists of a silicon (or) gallium – arsenic p-n junction diode packed in a can with glass window on top. The upper layer is of p-type semiconductor. It is very thin so that the incident light photons may easily reach the p-n junction.

Working : When light (E = hv) falls at the junction, electron – hole pairs are generated near 13% junction. The electrons and holes produced move in opposite directions due to junction field. They will be collected at the two sides of the junction giving rise to a photo voltage between top and bottom metal electrodes. Top metal acts as positive electrode and bottom metal acts as a negative electrode. When an external load is connected across metal electrodes a photo current flows.

I – V characteristics : I – V characteristics of solar cell is drawn in the fourth quadrant of the co-ordinate axes. Because it does not draw current.
Uses : They are used in calculators, wrist watches, artificial satellites etc.

Question 12.
Explain the different transistor configurations with diagrams.
Answer:
There are three configurations. They are

1) Common Base
2) Common emitter
3) Common collector.

1) Common Base configuration :

In this configuration base is earthed. Base is common both input and output. Input is given across base – emitter and output is taken across base-collector.

2) Common Emitter configuration :

In this configuration emitter is earthed. Emitter is common both input and output. Input is given across base – emitter and output is taken across collector – emitter.

3) Common collector configuration :

In this configuration collector is earthed. Collector is common both input and output. Input is given across base collector and output is taken across collector – emitter.

Question 13.
Explain how transistor can be used as a switch?
Answer:
To understand the operation of transistor as a switch.

1. As long as V_i is low and unable to forward bias the transistor, V₀ is high (at V_CC).
2. If V_i is high enough to drive the transistor into saturation then V₀ is low, very near to zero.
   
3. When the transistor is not conducting it is said to be switched off and when it is driven into saturation it is said to be switched on.
4. We can say that a low input to the transistor gives a high output and high input gives a low output.
5. When the transistor is used in the cutoff (or) saturation state it acts as a switch.
   

Question 14.
Explain how transistor can be used as an oscillator ?
Answer:

1. In an oscillator, we get ac output without any external input signal.
   
2. Here L – C circuit is inserted in emitter-base circuit of transistor winch is forward biased with battery V_BB. The collector emitter circuit is reverse biased with battery V_CC-.
3. A coil L₁ is inserted in collector emitter circuit. It is coupled with L.

Working:

1. S we close the key (K), weak collector current start rising with time due to inductance L₁. As a resell, increasing magnetic flux is finked with L₁ and L.
2. Due to mutual induction, an emf is induced in L which will charge the upper plate of capacitor (C), consequently there will be support to the forward biasing of emitter base circuit.
3. This results in an increasing in the emitter current and hence an increase in the collector current.
4. Due to it, more increasing magnetic flux is linked with L₁ & L.
5. The above process continues till the collector current becomes maximum (or) saturated,
6. The resonant frequency of tuned circuit at which the oscillator will oscillate.
   v = \(\frac{1}{2 \pi \sqrt{L C}}\)

Question 15.
Define WND and NOR gases. Give their truth tables.
Answer:
NAND gate : NAND gate is a combination of AND gate and NOT gate.

NAND gate can be obtained by connecting a NOT gate in the output of an AND gate. NAND gates are called universal gates.

1. If both inputs are low, output is high
   A = 0, B = 0, X = 1
   
2. If any input is low, output is high.
   A = 0, B = 1, X = 1
   A = 1, B = 0, X = 1
3. If both inputs are high, output is low.
   A = 1, B = 1, X = 0

NOR gate : NOR gate is a combination of OR gate and NOT gate when the output of OR gate is connected to NOT gate. It has two (or) more inputs and one output.

1. If both inputs are low, output is high
   A = 0, B = 0, X = 1
   
2. If input is high, output is low.
   A = 0, B = 0, X = 1
3. If both inputs are high, the output is low.
   A = 1, B = 1, X = 0
   NOR gate is also a universal gate.

Question 16.
Explain the operation of a NOT gate and give, its truth table.
Answer:
NOT gate: NOT gate is the basic gate. It has one input and one output. The NOT gate is also called an inverter. The circuit symbol of NOT gate is shown in figure.

1. If input is low, output is high.
   A = 0, X = \(\overline{0}\) = 1
   
2. If input is high, output is low.
   A = 1, X = \(\overline{1}\) = 0

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is a junction diode ? Explain the formation of depletion region at the junction. Explain the variation of depletion region in forward and reverse-biased condition.
Answer:
p-n junction diode: When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor, a p-n junction diode is formed.

The circuit symbol of p-n junction diode is shown in figure.

Formation of depletion layer at the junction: When p-n junction is formed, the free electrons on n-side diffuse over to p-side, they combine with holes and become neutral. Similarly holes on p-side diffuse over to n-side and combine with electrons become neutral.

This results in a narrow region formed on either side of the junction. This region is called depletion layer. Depletion layer is free from charge carriers.

The n-type material near the junction becomes positively charged due to immobile donor ions and p-type material becomes negatively charged due to immobile acceptor ions. This creates an electric field near the junction directed from n-region to p-region and cause a potential barrier.

The potential barrier stops further diffusion of holes and electrons across the junction. The value of the potential barrier depends upon the nature of the crystal, its temperature and the amount of doping.

Forward bias:
“When a positive terminal of a battery is connected to p-side and negative terminal is connected to n-side; then p-n junction diode is said to be forward bias”.

The holes in the p-region are repelled by the positive polarity and move towards the junction.
Similarly electrons in the n-region are repelled by the negative polarity and move towards the junction.
As a result, the width of the depletion layer decreases. The charge carriers cross the junction and electric current flows in the circuit.

Hence in forward bias resistance of diode is low. This position is called switch on position.

Reverse bias:

‘When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to p-side and positive terminal of the battery is connected n-side of the p-n junction, then the diode is said to be reverse bias”.

The holes in the p-region are attracted towards negative polarity and move away from the junction. Similarly the electrons in the n-region are attracted towards positive polarity and move away from the junction.

So, width of the depletion layer and potential barrier increases. Hence resistance of p-n junction diode increases. Thus the reverse biased diode is called switch off position.

Question 2.
What is a rectifier ? Explain the working of half wave and full wave rectifiers with diagrams.
Answer:
Rectifier: It is a circuit which converts ac into d.c. A p-n junction diode is used as a rectifier.
Half-wave rectifier:

1. A half wave rectifier can be constructed with a single diode. The ac input signal is fed to the primary coil of a transformer. The output signal is taken across the load resistance R_L.
2. During positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and current flows through the diode.
3. During negative half cycle, diode is reverse biased and no current flows through the load resistance.
4. This means current flows through the diode only during positive half cycles and negative half cycles are blocked. Hence in the output we get only positive half cycles.
5. Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output dc power to the input ac power.
   η = \(\frac{\mathrm{P}_{\mathrm{dc}}}{\mathrm{P}_{\mathrm{ac}}}\) = \(\frac{0.406 \mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}{\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{f}}+\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}\)
   Where r_f = Forward resistance of a diode; R_L = Load resistance
   The maximum efficiency of half wave rectifier is 40.6%.

Full wave rectifier: The process of converting an alternating current into a direct current is called rectification.
The device used for this purpose is called rectifier.

1. A full wave rectifier can be constructed with the help of two diodes D₁ and D₂.
2. The secondary transformer is centre tapped at C and its ends are connected to the p regions of two diodes D₁ & D₂.
3. The output voltage is measured across the load resistance R_L.
4. During positive half cycles of ac, the diode D₁ is forward biased and current flows through the load resistance R_L. At this time D₂ will be reverse biased and will be in switch off position.
5. During negative half cycles of ac, the diode D₂ is forward biased and the current flows through R_L. At this time D₁ will be reverse biased and will be in switch off position.
6. Hence positive output is obtained for all the input ac signals.
7. The efficiency of a rectifier is defined as the ratio between the output dc power to the input ac power.
   η = \(\frac{\mathrm{P}_{\mathrm{dc}}}{\mathrm{P}_{\mathrm{ac}}}\) = \(\frac{0.812 \mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}{\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{f}}+\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}\)
   The maximum efficiency of a full wave rectifier is 81.2%.

Question 3.
What is a Zener diode ? Explain how it is used as a voltage regulator.
Answer:
Zener diode : Zener diode is a heavily doped germanium (or) silicon p-n junction diode. It works on reverse bias break down region.

The circuit symbol of zener diode is shown in figure.

Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator. In general zener diode is connected in reverse bias in the circuits.

1. The zener diode is connected to a battery, through a resistance R. The battery reverse biases the zener diode.
2. The load resistance R_L is connected across the terminals of the zener diode.
3. The value of R is selected in such away that in the absence of load R_L maximum safe current flows in the diode.
4. Now consider that load is connected across the diode. The load draws a current.
5. The current through the diode falls by the same amount but the voltage drops across the load remains constant.
6. The series resistance R absorbs the output voltage fluctuations, so as to maintain constant voltage across the load.
7. The voltage across the zener diode remains constant even if the load R_L varies. Thus, zener diode works as voltage regulator.
8. If I is the input current, I_Z and I_L are zener and load currents.
   I = I_Z + I_L; V_in = IR + V_Z
   But V_out= V_Z
   ∴ V_out= V_in – IR

Question 4.
Describe a transistor and explain its wbking.
Answer:
Transistor: It is a device which consists of two p-n junctions joined back to back. Transistor means transfer of resistance.
Transistor has three regions. They are :

1) Emitter (E)
2) Base (B)
3) Collector (C)

1) Emitter (E) The section at one end of transistor is called emitter. It is heavily doped region. It emitts charge carriers.
2) Base (B) : The middle section off transistor is called base. This is lightly doped and very thin and almost of the charge carriers injected into it to flow into collector with out neutralised.
3) Collector (C) : The section at the other end is called collector. It is moderately doped. It collects the charge carriers. Physically it is large.

Note : Usually the emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.

Working of p-n-p transistor : The base part is made of n-type, emitter and collector parts are ‘made of p-type. The circuit symbol of p-n-p transistor is shown in figure.

The emitter junction is forward biased by connecting positive terminal off battery to the emitter and negative to the base. The collector junction is reverse biased by connecting negative to fee collector and positive to fee base.

The holes in p-region (emitter) are repelled by the positive terminal and crossing the emitter junction, enter the base region causing emitter current I_E. Few holes are combined with electrons in base region, this constitute base current (I_B). Majority of holes enters through the collector region. The negative terminal battery rapidly sweeps the holes in the collector region causing collector current (I_C).
I_E = I_B – I_C
In p-n-p transistor inside the circuit charge carriers are holes and outside the circuit charge carriers are electrons.

n-p-n transistor: If the base part is made of p-type, emitter and collector parts are made of n-type, we get n-p-n transistor. The circuit symbol of n-p-n transistor is shown in figure.


The emitter junction is forward biased with negative end of a battery connected to emitter and positive to the base. The collector junction is reverse biased with collector positive end of a battery and negative to the base.

The electrons in the emitter (n-region) are repelled by the negative terminal of a battery and cross the base region constituting the emitter current I_E. A small number of electrons may recombine with holes in base region constituting base current I_B.

Majority charge carriers (electrons) enters into the collector region. The positive terminal of battery rapidly sweeps the electrons in collector, constituting collector current I_C.
I_E = I_B + I_C
In n-p-n transistor charge carriers inside and outside the circuit are electrons.

Question 5.
What is amplification ? Explain the working of a common emitter amplifier with necessary diagram.
Answer:
Amplification : The process of raising the strength of a weak signal is called amplification and the device which accomplishes this job is called an amplifier.
Amplifiers are of two types.

1. Power amplifier
2. Voltage amplifier.

Amplification factor: The ratio between output voltage to the input voltage is called amplification factor.
A = \(\frac{v_0}{v_i}\)
Common emitter transistor amplifier:

The n-p-n common emitter amplifier circuit is shown in figure. In this circuit the battery V_BB provides the biasing voltage V_BE for the base emitter junction. The emitter junction is forward biased and the battery V_CC provides the biasing voltage V_CE for the emitter collector junction. The junction is reverse biased. Most of the electrons from emitter cross the base region and move into the collector.

The input signal to be amplified is connected in series with the biasing battery (V_BB). A load resistance R_L is connected in the collector circuit and output voltage is taken across R_L.

As the base emitter voltage (V_BE) changes due to input signal, the base current changes (I_B) . This results in large change in collector current (ΔI_C). The change in collector emitter voltage (ΔV_CE) is taken across R_L. Thus amplified output is obtained across R_L.

Current gain (β) : The ratio of change in collector current to the change in base current is called current gain (or) current amplification factor.
β = \(\frac{\Delta \mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{C}}}{\Delta \mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{B}}}\)

Voltage gain (A_V) : It is the ratio of change in output voltage (ΔV_CE) to the change in input voltage (ΔV_BE).

Power gain : It is defined as the product of current gain and voltage gain.
Power gain (Ap) = Current gain × Voltage gain.

Question 6.
Draw an OR gate using two diodes and explain its operation. Write the truth table and logic symbol of OR gate.
Answer:
OR Gate : It has two input terminals and one output terminal. If both inputs are low the output is low. If one of the inputs is high, or both the inputs are high then the output of the gate is high. The truth tables of OR gate.

In truth table logic function is written as A or B ‘OR’ logic function is represented by the symbol ‘plus’
Q = A + B

Logic gate ‘OR’ is shown given below.

Implementation of OR gate using diodes:
Let D₁ and D₂ be two diodes.
A potential of 5V represents the logical value 1
A potential of 0V represents the logical value 0
When A = 0, B = 0 both the diodes are reverse, biased and there no current through the resistance. So, the potential at Q is zero. i.e. Q = 0. When A = 0 or B = O and the other equal to a potential of 5V i.e., Q = 1. When both A and B which is 5V i.e., Q = 1. The output is same as that of the OR gate.

Question 7.
Sketch a basic AND circuit with two diodes and explain its operation. Explain how doping increases the conductivity in semiconductors?
Answer:
AND gate : It has two input terminals and one out terminal

• If both the inputs are low (or) one of the inputs is low.
  ⇒ The out is low in an AND gate.
• If both the inputs are high ⇒ The output of the gate is high

Note: If A and B are the inputs of the gate and the output is ‘Q’ then ‘Q‘ is a logical function of A and B.
AND gate Truth Tables

The logical function AND is represented by the symbol dot so that the output, Q = A.B and the circuit symbol used for the logic gate AND is shown in Fig.
The logical function AND is similar to the multiplication.

Implementation of AND gate using diodes: Let D₁ and D₂ represents two diodes. A potential of 5 V represents the Logical value 1 and a potential of 0 V represents the logical value zero (O). When A = 0, B = 0 both the diodes D₁ and D₂ are forward-biased and they behave like closed switches. Hence, the output Q is same as that A or B(equal to zero.) When A = 0 or B = 0, D₁ or D₂ is forward – biased and Q is zero. When A = 1 and B = 1 both the diodes are reverse – biased and they behave like open switches. There is no current through the resistance R making the potential at Q equal to 5V i.e., Q = 1. The output is same as that of an AND gate.

Doping increases the conductivity in Semiconductors : If a pentavalent impurity (Arsenic) is added to a pure tetravalent semiconductor it is called n-type semiconductor. Arsenic has 5 valence electrons, but only 4 electrons are needed to form covalent bonds with the adjacent Germanium atoms. The fifth electron is very loosely bound and become a free electron. Therefore excess electrons are available for conduction and conductivity of semiconductor increases.

Similarly when a trivalent impurity Indium is added to pure Germanium it is called p-type semiconductor. In this excess holes in addition to those formed due to thermal energy are available for conduction in the valence bând and the conductivity of semiconductor increases.

Problems

Question 1.
In a half wave rectifier, a p-n junction diode with internal resistance 20 ohm is used. If the load resistance of 2 ohm is used in the circuit, then find the efficiency of this half wave rectifier.
Solution:
Internal resistance (r_f) = 20Ω
R_L = 2kΩ = 2000 Ω
η = \(\frac{0.406 R_L}{r_f+R_L}\) = \(\frac{0.406 \times 2000}{20+2000}\) × 100 = \(\frac{812 \times 100}{2020}\)
η = 40.2%

Question 2.
A full wave p-n junction diode rectifier uses a load resistance of 1300 ohm. The internal resistance of each diode is 9 ohm. Find the efficiency of this full wave rectifier.
Solution:
Given that R_L = 1300 Ω
r_f = 9Ω
η = \(\frac{0.812 \mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}{\mathrm{r}_{\mathrm{f}}+\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}\) = \(\frac{0.812 \times 1300}{9+1300}\) × 100
η = \(\frac{8120 \times 13}{1309}\)
η = 80.64%

Question 3.
Calculate the current amplification factor β(beta) when change in collector current is 1mA and change in base current is 20μA.
Solution:
Change in collector current (ΔI_C) = 1mA = 10^-3 A
Change in base current (ΔI_B) = 20μA = 20 × 10^-6 A
β = \(\frac{\Delta \mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{C}}}{\Delta \mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{B}}}\) = \(\frac{10^{-3}}{20 \times 10^{-6}}\)
β = \(\frac{1000}{20}\)
β = 50

Question 4.
For a transistor amplifier, the collector load resistance R_L = 2k ohm and the input resistance R_i = 1 k ohm. If the current gain is 50, calculate voltage gain of the amplifier.
Solution:
R_L = 2kΩ = 2 × 10³ Ω
R_i = 1kΩ = 1 × 10³ Ω
β = 50.
Voltage gain (A_V) = β × \(\frac{\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{L}}}{\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{i}}}\) = \(\frac{50 \times 2 \times 10^3}{1 \times 10^3}\)
A_V = 100.

Textual Exercises

Question 1.
In an n-type silicon, which of the following statement is true :
(a) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.
(b) Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
(c) Holes are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
(d) Holes are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.
Answer:
(c). In an n-type semiconductor, it is obtained by doping the Ge or Si with pentavalent atoms. In n-type semiconductors, electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.

Question 2.
Which of the statements given in Exercise 1 is true for p-type semiconductors ?
Answer:
(b) & (d). p-type semiconductor is obtained by doping Ge or Si with trivalent atoms. In p-type semiconductor holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers.

Question 3.
Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence electrons each. These are characterised by valence and conduction bands separated by energy band gap respectively equal to (E_g)_c, (E_g)_Si and (_g)_Ge. Which of the following statements is true ?
(a) (E_g)_Si < (E_g)_Ge < (E_g)_C
(b) (E_g)_C < (E_g)_Ge > (E_g)_Si
(c) (E_g)_C > (E_g)_Si > (E_g)_Ge
(d) (E_g)_C = (E_g)_Si = (E_g)_Ge
Answer:
(c). The energy band – gap is largest for carbon, less for sillicon and least for Germanium.

Question 4.
In an unbiased p-n junction, holes diffuse from the p-region to n-region because
(a) free electrons in the n-region attract them.
(b) they move across the junction by the potential difference.
(c) hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to n-region.
(d) All the above.
Answer:
(c). In an unbiased p-n junction, the diffusion of charge carriers across the junction takes place from higher concentration to lower concentration. Therefore, hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to n-region.

Question 5.
When a forward bias is applied to a p-n junction, it
(a) raises the potential barrier.
(b) reduces the majority carrier current to zero.
(c) lowers the potential barrier.
(d) None of the above.
Answer:
(c). When a forward bias is applied across the p-n junction, the applied voltage opposes the barrier voltage. Due to this, the potential barrier across the junction is lowered.

Question 6.
For transistor action, which of the following statements are correct:
(a) Base, emitter and collector regions should have similar size and doping concentrations.
(b) The base region must be very thin and lightly doped.
(c) The emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is reverse biased.
(d) Both the emitter junction as well as the collector junction are forward biased.
Answer:
(b) and (c). For a transistor β = \(\frac{\mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{C}}}{\mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{B}}}\)
I_B = \(\frac{I_C}{\beta}\) (Or) R_input = \(\frac{V_{\text {input }}}{V_B}\) = \(\frac{V_{\text {input }}}{I_C}\) . β. i.e., R_input ∝ \(\frac{1}{\mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{C}}}\)

Therefore R_input is inversly proportional to the collector current. For high collector current, the R_input should be small for which the base region must be very thin and lightly doped for a transistor action, the emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is reverse biased.

Question 7.
For a transistor amplifier, the voltage gain
(a) remains constant for all frequencies.
(b) is high at high and low frequencies and constant in the middle frequency range.
(c) is low at high and low frequencies and Constant at mid frequencies.
(d) None of the above.
Answer:
(c). The voltage gain is low at high and low frequencies and constant at mid-frequency.

Question 8.
In half-wave rectification, what is the output frequency, if the input frequency is 50 Hz. What is the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier for the same input frequency ?
Answer:
A half wave rectifier rectifies only the half of ac input i.e., it conducts once during an ac input cycle while a full wave rectifier rectifies both the half cycles of the ac input i.e., it conducts twice during a cycle.
The output frequency for half-wave is 50Hz.
The output frequency of a full-wave rectifier is 2 × 50 = 100Hz.

Question 9.
For a CE-transistor amplifier, the audio signal voltage across the collected resistance of 2 kΩ is 2 V. Suppose the current amplification factor of the transistor is 100, find the input signal voltage and base current, if the base resistance is 1 kΩ.
Solution:
Given, collector resistance R_output = 2KΩ = 2000Ω.
Current amplification factor of the transistor β_AC = 100.
Audio signal voltage V_output = 2V
Input (base) resistance R_input = 1KΩ = 1000Ω

Question 10.
Two amplifiers are connected one after the other in series (cascaded). The first amplifier has a voltage gain of 10 and the second has a voltage gain of 26. If the input signal is 0.01 volt, calculate the output ac signal.
Solution:
Given, voltage gain of first Amplifier, \(\mathrm{A}_{\mathrm{V}_1}\) = 10
Voltage gain of second Amplifier, \(\mathrm{A}_{\mathrm{V}_2}\) = 20
Input voltage V₁ = 0.01V
Total voltage gain A_v = \(\frac{v_0}{v_i}\) = \(\mathrm{A}_{\mathrm{V}_1}\) × \(\mathrm{A}_{\mathrm{V}_2}\)
\(\frac{v_0}{0.01}\) = 10 × 20; V₀ = 2V

Question 11.
A p-n photodiode is fabricated from a semiconductor with band gap of 2.8 eV. Can it detect a wavelength of 6000 nm ?
Solution:
Energy(E) = \(\frac{h c}{\lambda}\) = \(\frac{6.6 \times 10^{-34} \times 3 \times 10^8}{6000 \times 10^{-9} \times 1.6 \times 10^{-19}}\) eV = 2.06 eV.
The band – gap is 2.8 eV and energy E is less than band gap (E < E_g). So p-n junction cannot detect, file radiation of given wavelength 6000 nm.

Additional Exercises

Question 1.
The number of silicon atoms per m³ is 5 × 10²⁸. This is doped simultaneously with 5 × 10²² atoms per m³ of Arsenic and 5 × 10²⁸ per m³ atoms of Indium. Calculate the number of electrons and boles. Gives that n,sub>i = 1.5 × 10¹⁶ m^-3. Is the material n-type or p-type ?
Solution:
We know that for each atom doped of arsenic one free electron is received. Similarly, for each- atom doped of Indium a, vacancy is crested So, the number of free electrons introduced by pentavalent impurity added.
n_e = N_As = 5 × 10²²m³ —- (i)
The number of holes introduced by trivalent impurity added.

As number of electrons n_e (= 4.95 × 10²²) is greater than number of holes n_h (= 45 × 10⁹). So, the material is n-type semiconductor.

Question 2.
In an intrinsic semiconductor the energy gap E_g is 1.2 eV. Its hole mobility is much smaller than electron mobility and independent of temperature. What is the ratio between conductivity at 600K and that at 300 K ? Assume that the temperature dependence of intrinsic carrier concentration n_i is given by n_i = n₀ exp \(\left(-\frac{\mathbf{E}_{\mathbf{g}}}{2 \mathbf{K}_{\mathbf{B}} \mathbf{T}}\right)\) where n₀ is a constant.
Solution:
Given, intrinsic carrier concentration n_i = \(n_0 e^{-E g / 2 k_B T}\) and Energy gap E_g = 1.2 eV
K_B = 8.62 × 10^-5 eV/K
For T = 600k

Let the conductivities are σ₆₀₀ and σ₃₀₀ (∵ σ = e n µe)
\(\frac{\sigma_{600}}{\sigma_{300}}\) = \(\frac{n_{600}}{n_{300}}\) = 1.1 × 10⁵.

Question 3.
In a p-n junction diode, the current I can be expressed as I = I₀ exp \(\left(\frac{e V}{2 K_B T}-1\right)\) where I₀ is called the reverse saturation current, V is the voltage across the diode and is positive for forward bias and negative for reverse bias, and I is the current through the diode, k_B is the Boltzmann constant (8.6 × 10^-5 eV/K) and T is the absolute temperature. If for a given diode I₀ = 5 × 10^-12 A and T = 300 K, then
(a) What will be the forward current at a forward voltage of 0.6 V ?
(b) What will be the increase in the current if the voltage across the diode is increased to 0.7 V?
(c) What is the dynamic resistance ?
(d) What will be the current if reverse bias voltage changes from IV to 2 V ?
Solution:
Given I₀ = 5 × 10^-12 A, T = 300K
K_B = 8.6 × 10^-5eV/K = 8.6 × 10^-5 × 1.6 × 10^-19 J/K
a) Given, voltage V = 0.6V
\(\frac{\mathrm{eV}}{\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{B}} \mathrm{T}}\) = \(\frac{1.6 \times 10^{-19} \times 0.6}{8.6 \times 10^{-5} \times 1.6 \times 10^{-19} \times 300}\) = 23.26
The current I through a junction diode is given by

= 5 × 10^-12(e^23.26 – 1) = 5 × 10^-12 (1.259 × 10¹⁰ – 1)
= 5 × 10^-12 × 1.259 × 10¹⁰ = 0.063 A
Change in current ΔI = 3.035 – 0.063 = 2.9A

b) Given voltage V = 0.7 V
\(\frac{\mathrm{eV}}{\mathrm{K}_B T}\) = \(\frac{1.6 \times 10^{-19} \times 0.7}{8.6 \times 10^{-5} \times 1.6 \times 10^{-19} \times 300}\) = 27.14
Now, I = \(I_0 e^{\frac{e V}{K_B T}}-1\) = 5 × 10^-12(e^27.14 – 1)
= 5 × 10^-12(6.07 × 10¹¹ – 1)
= 5 × 10^-12 × 5.07 × 10¹¹ = 0.035 A
Change in current ΔI = 3.035 – 0.693 = 2.9 A

c) ΔI = 2.9A, voltage ΔV = 0.7 – 0.6 = 0.1 V
Dynamic retistance R_d = \(\frac{\Delta \mathrm{V}}{\Delta \mathrm{I}}\) = \(\frac{0.1}{2.9}\) = 0.0336Ω

d) As the voltage changes from IV to 2V, the current I will be almost equal to
I₀ = 5 × 10^-12A.
It is due to that the diode possesses practically infinite resistance in the reverse bias.

Question 4.
You are given the two circuits as shown in Fig.Show that circuit (a) acts as OR gate while the circuit (b) acts as AND gate.

Solution:
a) Split the gate, OR gate

The truth table :

Here, for given A and B as inputs, C is the output of OR gate and input of NOT gate 1, D is the output of NOT gate 1 and input of NOT gate 2, then Y is finally output.

This is same as OR gate. So, this circuit acts as OR gate.

b) Split the gate:

The truth table:

Here, for given A and B as inputs, C is the output of A and D is the output of B, E is the output of OR gate and input of NOT gate 3, then Y is finally output. .

This is same as AND gate, So the given circuit acts as AND gate

Question 5.
Write the truth table for a NAND gate connected as given in fig.

Hence identify the exact logic operation carried out by the circuit.
Solution:
Split the gate:

Truth table:

B is the output of AND gate and input of NOT gate.
So, for input A and output Y, the table is

Here, it is same as NOT gate, so the logic operation is carried by this circuit as NOT gate

Question 6.
You are given two circuits as shown in fig. which consist of NAND gates. Identify the logic operation carried out by the two circuits.

Solution:
a) Split the gate:


C is the output of AND gate 1 and input of NOT gate 1, D is the output of NOT gate 1 and input of AND gate 2, E is the õut put of AND gate 2 and input of NOT gate 2, Y is finally output
Truth table:

So, this logic operation is AND gate.

b)

C is the out put of AND gate 1
D is the out put of AND gate 2
E is the out put of NOT gate 1
F is the out put of NOT gate 2
G is the out put of AND gate 3 and input of NOT gate 3
Here, it is same as OR gate. A and B are inputs and Y is output.

So, this logic operation resembles to OR gate.

Question 7.
Write the truth table for circuit given in fig. below consisting of NOR gates and identify the logic operation (OR, AND, NOT) which this circuit is performing.

Hint: A = 0, B = 1 then A and B inputs of second NOR gate will be 0 and hence Y = 1. Similarly work out the values of Y for other combinations of A and B. Compare with the truth table of OR, AND, NOT gates and find the correct one.)
Solution:
Split the gate:

C is the output of OR gate 1.
D is the output of NOT gate 1 and input of NOT gate 2. E is the output of OR gate 2 and input of the NOT gate 2. Here, it is same as OR gate. A and B are inputs and Y is output.

So, this logic operation resembles to OR gate.

Question 8.
Write the truth table for the circuits given in fig. consisting of NOR.gates ònly. Identify the logic operations (OR, AND, NOT) performed by the two circuits.

Solution:
a) Split the gate

B is the output of OR gate and input of NOT gate. So, the gate resembles to NOT gate as A is input and Y is output.

b) a) Split the gate:

C is the output of OR gate 1 and input of NOT gate 1, D is the output of OR gate 2 and input of NOT gate 2, E is the output of NOT gate 1, F is the output of NOT gate 2.

G is the output of OR gate 3 and input of NOT gate 3. The truth table resembles to AND gate as A and B inputs and Y is output.

This operation is AND gate.