Srinivas

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 11 The Government Budget and Taxation to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 11 The Government Budget and Taxation

→ The government is responsible for a number of crucial functions. It has to perform both developmental and non-developmental functions.

→ To fulfill the various roles, the government must have adequate money. The money is collected from the people in the form of taxes. Revenues are necessary to finance the expenditure of the government

→ In 2011-12, the government spent around Rs. 23,00,000 crores in lots of heads. Nearly one-fourth of the total spending of the Indian economy is by the government

→ Taxes are levied with thorough approval of the Parliament

→ Taxes are the main sources of revenue for the government The taxes can broadly be classified into two categories

1. Direct taxes
2. Indirect taxes.

→ Excise duty, customs duty, VAT, sales tax, service taxes are indirect taxes. VAT has certain advantages.

→ Income tax, property tax, and corporate tax are indirect taxes.

→ In adopting a method of taxation, the government should be careful The poor should be exempted from paying taxes. Essential goes should not be taxed. Tax on luxuries can be increased Agriculture income is exempted from taxes.

→ There are many “tax evaders” and a lot of black money. To get hold of this hoard of money, the income tax department raids many people’s places.

→ Annual Budget: A written format of expected incomes and anticipated expenditure prepared by the Central or State Governments for a financial year.

→ Black Money: Many people do not disclose their entire income or show it to be less than what it actually is. This income which is kept hidden is known as black money.

→ Value Added Tax: VAT is a tax that is added to the price of goods and services.

→ Corporate tax: Corporate tax is the tax levied on the yearly profit of companies and business establishments.

→ Income tax: A direct tax in which tax is levied on the personal income of individuals.

→ Direct tax: Direct tax is that type of tax in which the tax burden will be on the same person on whom the tax is levied. e.g.: Income tax.

→ Indirect tax: Indirect tax is that type of tax in which the tax is levied on one person and the burden is shifted to some other person. e.g.: Excise duty.

→ Subsidies: The difference between the market price and the price at which the goods are offered is the subsidy given to the poor.

→ Consumers: Consumers are the persons who directly utilize the goods.

→ Subsidies: Money paid by the government to reduce the cost of certain important goods such as fertilizers, food grains, diesel, and other important goods so that their prices can be kept low and affordable to all.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 22 Film and Print Media to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 22 Film and Print Media

→ The birth of cinema in India can be attributed to Lumiere’s brother’s first public show at Watson Hotel in Mumbai on July 7, 1896.

→ The plays written by George Bernard Shaw and Shakespeare were visualized with a camera and exhibited on the screen as a film.

→ The popularity of plays has decreased significantly while the films have gained prominence.

→ In Telugu the first ‘Mooki’ was ‘Bhishma Pratigna’ and ‘talkie’ was ‘Bhakta Prahlada’.

→ The father of the Telugu film industry is Raghupathi Venkaiah.

→ Before the cinema, there were various forms of entertainment like folk art forms, folk dances, classical dances, music, dramas, etc.

→ Several films on national movements were made later.

→ While society influences art and hence films, it is also true that films influence society.

→ Films can influence the opinions and ideas of people in society.

→ With the introduction of paper production in the 11th century and the printing machine by Gutenberg in the mid-15th-century things have changed.

→ The newspapers play a very important role in our daily life.

→ In Telugu, Krishna Patrika was edited by Mutnuri Krishna Rao.

→ Many freedom fighters of Indian Independence were the editors of newspapers.

→ Projector: A device for projecting slides or film onto a screen.

→ Commentary: A spoken description of an event on the radio or television

→ Compose: Create a work of art especially music or poetry.

→ Gazette: A journal or nèwspaper.

→ Publish: Produce a book, newspaper, journal, or piece of music for public sale.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 21 Performing Arts and Artistes in Modern Times to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 21 Performing Arts and Artistes in Modern Times

→ Many of the folk arts are performed by the people themselves.

→ The Chuttuu Kamudu is one of the art forms of Telangana that came out of the daily labor of the peasants.

→ Dhimsa dance is performed by tribal groups living in Araku valley.

→ Raj Gonds of Adilabad dance during the celebrations of DIWALI known as ‘Gusadi’.

→ Kuchipudi is a group form of dance-drama from Kuchipudi, a village in Andhra Pradesh.

→ Golla Suddulu were practiced by shepherds who migrated from place to place.

→ Burrakatha is a Telugu art of storytelling. Its origin is associated with the Virashaiva movement in the 12 & 13 centuries.

→ The British and Nizam governments harassed Burrakatha artists as they suspected them of spreading rebellious ideas among people.

→ Progressive artists of the Communist Party set up the Praja Natya Mandali in 1943.

→ Tholubommalata is a shadow puppet show performed by traveling artists.

→ The classical dances that were prevalent in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh then were called Sadir, Kuravanji, and Kuchipudi.

→ E.Krishna Iyer, Rukmini Devi, and Bala Saraswathi promoted this dance.

→ Under British rule, propaganda prevailed against Indian art, misrepresenting it as crude, immoral, and inferior to the concepts of western civilization.

→ Many are forced to use recorded music in dance performances to keep costs down.

→ Kathakali, Yakshagana, Odissi, Manipuri, Kathak are other dance forms like Bharata- Natyam.

→ Cymbals: A musical instrument consisting of a round brass plate that is either struck against another one or hit with a stick.

→ Anklets: Chains or bands worn around the ankle.

→ Alms: Money or food given to poor people as charitable donations.

→ Mime: The use of silent gestures and facial expressions to tell a story or convey a feeling.

→ Tarangam: It is a tough task in the Kuchipudi dance form. In this, the artist dances in a ‘Plate’ and keeps a vessel with water on his/her head, sometimes candles in their hands.

→ Nattuvanars: Dance masters, who usually were male children of devadasis.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 10 Prices and Cost of Living to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 10 Prices and Cost of Living

→ Every family makes a budget The balancing of expenditure to income is called a budget They reduce their expenditure in order to adjust their budget

→ Not everyone is affected by prices. Not all working people get compensated easily.

→ Continuous rise in prices of goods is known as inflation.

→ Change in price is measured with the help of a statistical device known as a price index.

→ Price Index numbers are of different types. We have the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) and the Consumer Price Index. In India, different CPIs are published by the government

→ CPIs are used to calculated DA (Dearness Allowance) to be paid for government employees, to revise legal wages, etc.

→ WPIs are helpful in calculating the rates of inflation.

→ The government generally regulates prices through Administrative Price Mechanisms. Sometimes subsidies are given to regulate the prices.

→ The Reserve Bank of India which is an apex body reduces the money in circulation to control inflation.

→ Standard of living Quality of life that people lead in terms of goods and services is the standard of living of the people.

→ Inflation: Inflation means a general increase in the price levels and a gradual decrease in the value of money.

→ Consumer Price Index: Changes in the prices of the selected consumer goods at retail price in a statistical form are called Consumer Price Index.

→ Wholesale Price Index: A statistical measure used to measure the change ¡n the prices of all goods in their wholesale rates.

→ Administrative Price Mechanism: It is a system where prices are regularised by the governments

→ Food Inflation: Since 2009, the government began to estimate a new index – The Food Price Index (FPI). This index is used to estimate the rise in prices of food items called food inflation. The FPI consists wholesale price of food materials such as rice, wheat, pulses, vegetables, sugar, milk, eggs, meat, fish, and manufactured food materials such as edible oils. In 2011-12, edible oils accounted for higher food inflation. During that year, about 50 percent of India’s edible oil requirements were met through imports of crude palm oil sunflower oil, soyabean oil, and refined palm olein. When the price of these items increased at the international level – in other countries from where we import, Indian consumers also had to pay higher prices.

→ Since then the government has to take measures to control the rising prices, many research studies were conducted. It was found that the change in the dietary pattern of people has changed considerably in such a manner that their consumption of vegetables, eggs, meat, and fish increased recently. Any seasonal shortage causes a price rise since the demand for these products is quite high. People wish to consume them even at a higher cost. It has become a part of the regular diet.

Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 1 India: Relief Features to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 1 India: Relief Features

→ World landforms originated from two giant lands namely Angara land (Laurasia) and Gondwana land.

→ The Indian Peninsula was part of Gondwana land.

→ The Himalayan ranges run in the west-east direction in the form of an arch with a distance of about 2400 km.

→ The northernmost range is known as Himadri or Greater Himalayas.

→ The portion of the range found south of the Greater Himalayas is called ’Lesser Himalayas’.

→ The southernmost range of the Himalayas is the Shivaliks.

→ The valleys lying between the Lesser Himalayas and Shivalik ranges are called Duns.

→ The Himalayas are the reason for summer rains and monsoon type of climate in regions that are beyond the Western Ghats of India.

→ The interaction of three Himalayan rivers Indus, Ganga, and the Brahmaputra, and their tributaries resulted in the formation of the great northern plain.

→ In the western part of the great northern plain, the ’Doab’ features dominate the fertile land between the two rivers.

→ The Indian plateau is also known as the peninsular plateau as it is surrounded by the sea on three sides.

→ The peninsular plateau consists of two broad divisions, namely, the central I highlands (Malwa plateau) and the Deccan Plateau.

→ The Western Ghats lie parallel to the west coast and they extend for 1600 km.

→ The Eastern Ghats extend from Mahanadi valley in the north to Nilgiris in the south, The highest peak in the Eastern Ghats is Aroma Konda found at Chintapalli (1680 m) in Andhra Pradesh.

→ The Thar desert is located on the leeward side of Aravalis and receives very little rainfall, ranging from 100 to 150 mm per year.

→ ’Luni’ is the only river in the Thar desert area.

→ The southern part of the peninsular plateau is bordered by narrow coastal strips along the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east.

→ Coastal zone enables rich fishing resources.

→ There are two groups of Islands – Andaman and Nicobar Islands stretched in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea.

→ There is a vast diversity in the landforms in which Indian people live.

→ Some areas are irrigated by the mighty rivers flowing from the Himalayas and some by the rainfed rivers from the Western Ghats and its forests.

→ Many places are located in the valleys and others in the mountains.

→ Perennial: LastIng a very long time, or happening repeatedly or all the time

→ Coral reefs: A bank of coral, the top of which can sometimes be seen just above the sea

→ Coastal plains: The East Coastal plain is between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal, the West Coastal plain Is between the Western Ghats and the Arabian sea.

→ Peninsula: A stretch of land surrounded by water on three sides

→ Angara land: Laurasia = The northerly of the two continents into which the earth’s landmass was once divided

→ Gondwana land: The southerly of the two continents Into which the earth’s landmass was once divided

→ Shivalik: The southernmost range of the Himalayas

→ Purvanchal: The divisions of the Himalayas In Arunachal Pradesh beyond the Dihang valley

→ Laurasia: Angara land

→ Duns: The valleys lying between the lesser Himalayas and Shivalik ranges

→ Leeward: The side or direction that Is sheltered from the wind. e.g. by a range of mountains

→ Relief features: The features which exhibit differences in the elevation of any part of the earth’s surface

→ Relief maps: Maps that seek to depict the surface relief of an area in three dimensions though not necessarily to scale

→ WeatherIng: The decay and disintegration of rocks of the earth’s crust by exposure to the atmosphere

→ DeposItion: The laying down of solid material that has been carried from a distant part of earth’s crust by natural agents like a river, wind, etc.

→ Erosion: The process of wearing away of the land surface by various natural agents like water, ice, wind, etc.

→ Landform: The shape, form, and nature of a feature of the earth’s land surface

→ Folding process: The formation of a bend In rock strata due to movements of the earth’s crust

→ Fold mountains: Mountains that have been thrown up into a massive fold or ridge by earth movements

→ Basin: A shallow structural down old In earth’s crust

→ River basin: The area drained by a single river system

→ Doab: The fertile land between two rivers

→ Topography: A detailed description or representation of both the natural and artificial features of an area Himadri Greater Himalayas = The northernmost range of the Himalayas.

→ Lesser Himalayas: Himachal The portion of the range found south of the Greater Himalayas.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 20 Understanding Secularism to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 20 Understanding Secularism

→ Jews were persecuted by Hitler in Germany and several million were killed.

→ Now, the Jewish state of Israel treats its own Muslim and Christian minorities quite badly.

→ In Saudi Arabia, non-Muslims are not allowed to build a temple, church, etc., and nor can they gather in a public place for prayers.

→ Members of one religious community either persecute or discriminate against members of other religious communities.

→ The Indian Constitution allows individuals the freedom to live by their religious beliefs and practices as they interpret these.

→ Any form of domination based on religion is in violation of the rights that a democratic society guarantees to each and every citizen irrespective of their religion.

→ Any interference in religion by the state has to be based on the ideals laid out in the Constitution.

→ Fundamental Rights are based on secular principles.

→ Fundamental Rights: Rights that are essential or fundamental for the well-being of a person is called Fundamental Rights. These rights are enshrined in the Part — Ill of the Constitution of India.

→ Democracy: A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives.

→ Tyranny: Cruel and oppressive government or rule

→ Personal Law: Law that applies to a particular person or class of persons only. Wherever situated – distinguished from territorial law.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 9 Credit in the Financial System to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 9 Credit in the Financial System

→ Banks accept deposits that can be withdrawn at any moment They work under the R.B.I. Banks honor withdrawals in cash and cheques.

→ Banks in India keep 15% of their deposits as cash to repay the depositors. Bank uses the major portion of the deposits to extend loans.

→ Bank charges interest on loans. The difference between what is charged from borrowers and what is paid to depositors is the primary source of income for banks.

→ There are many reasons for taking credit A large number of transactions in our day-to¬day activities involve credit in some form or the other.

→ Interest rates, collateral and documentation requirement, and the mode of repayment together comprise what is called the terms of credit

→ There are two types of sources of credit One formal and the other informal.

→ Banks and cooperatives come under formal sources of credit The informal lenders are moneylenders, traders, employers, relatives, and friends,

→ Informal sources of credit are the reason for rural indebtedness.

→ Self-help groups give loans to the rural poor especially women without collateral and documentation. They save women from the exorbitant interest rates of money lenders. Group members are jointly responsible for the repayment of loans. These loans created self-employment and made women self-reliant

→ Demand deposits Since the deposits in the bank can be withdrawn on demand, these deposits are called demand deposits.

→ Economic activities: All the activities that deal with money involving – production, industrial activities, and trading activities, and other purposeful activities are called economic activities.

→ Cooperative societies: A business or organization owned equally by all the people working in the field, i.e. agriculture or mining or handlooms, etc.

→ Commercial banks: All institutions that accept deposits and lend loans and work under the regulations of the Reserve Bank of India are called commercial banks.

→ Informal sources of credit: All the people, who do not follow any rules and regulations in issuing loans together are called informal sources of credit. e.g.: Moneylenders, traders, friends, relatives, etc.

→ New Initiatives: The RBI has been taking steps for improving the financial access to people in rural areas. Banks operate in rural areas either through branches or through Business Correspondents (BCs). A Business Correspondent is an approved bank agent providing basic banking services using a Micro ATM (terminal). These Business Correspondents encourage people in rural and remote areas to open bank accounts, save money and also use loan facilities provided by the banks. Bio-metric smart card identification systems are used to open these accounts.

→ Aadhaar Enabled Payment System (AEPS):

• AEPS is a new payment service offered by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) to banks, financial institutions using the ‘Aadhaar’ number and online UIDAI authentication through their respective Business Correspondent service centers.
• The customer needs his / her bank account linked to their Aadhaar number with the bank offering the AEPS service.
• A customer can at present avail of the following four services using AEPS through the micro – ATMs at BCs :
  (a) Cash Withdrawal
  (b) Cash Deposit
  (c) Balance Enquiry
  (d) Fund transfer

→ Financial Literacy: Financial Literacy is the process of equipping oneself with knowledge and information on financial matters. Taking interest in financial literacy helps one to have better financial planning, puts them in a better position to achieve their financial goals, and protect themselves from frauds and debt traps. It aims to inculcate savings habits, improve the understanding of financial products leading to effective use of financial services, and thus helps better money management. Further, financial literacy facilitates easy access to financial services.
Financial literacy material is available on the website of the Reserve Bank of India (www.rbi.org.in).

→ The financial literacy material available now covers subjects such as features of genuine banknotes, know your Reserve Bank, how RBI touches the life of the common person, caution against emails/ SMS offering huge sums of money from abroad, caution against providing bank account details on the internet, information of loan products available from banks, why save with banks ?, grievance redressal mechanism, Banking Ombudsman Scheme, caution against depositing money in unincorporated bodies/ unlicensed entities, Deposit Insurance (Are my deposits safe in banks ?, What is Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation), etc.

→ Financial literacy information is available in brochures/pamphlets prepared by RBI and other banks. Further, RBI has developed com¬ics on financial literacy subjects for the benefit of the school children. ‘Raju and the Money Tree’, ‘Money Kumar and Monitory Policy’ etc., are the names of the comics that can be downloaded from the RBI website mentioned above. In addition to the above, for the ben¬efit of word illiterate persons in rural, urban and remote areas, the State Level Bankers Committee (SLBC), Andhra Pradesh has prepared an audio CD on the benefits of saving with banks.

→ Financial Literacy is an important adjunct for promoting financial inclusion, consumer protection, and ultimately financial stability. Financial inclusion and financial literacy need to go hand in hand to enable the common man to understand the need and benefits of the products and services offered by formal financial institutions. In India, the need for financial literacy is even greater considering the low levels of literacy and the large section of the population that are still out of the formal financial setup. Financial literacy has assumed greater importance in recent years as financial markets have become increasingly complex and the common man finds it very difficult to make informed decisions. Further, in view of a higher percentage of household savings in our country, financial literacy can play a significant role in the efficient allocation of household savings and the ability of individuals to meet their financial goals.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 19 Social and Religious Reform Movements to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 19 Social and Religious Reform Movements

→ Many Christian missionaries came to India along with the European companies to preach Christianity in India.

→ The Europeans introduced the printing press in India.

→ In 1828 Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj.

→ Swami Vivekananda was a disciple of Ramakrishna and he set up the Ramakrishna Mission.

→ Swami Dayananda Saraswathi set up Arya Samaj in 1875.

→ The suppression of the revolt of 1857 had created a lot of bitterness between Muslims and the British.

→ Sir Syed Ahmed Khan started the Aligarh Movement for the spread of modern education and social reforms among Muslims.

→ Kandukuri Veeresalingam was a social reformer of the Andhra Region.

→ Savitribai Phule along with her husband Jyothiba Phule played an important role in improving women’s rights in Maharashtra.

→ Ramabai devoted her life to helping women, especially widows.

→ Jyothiba Phule founded Satya Shodhak Samaj to build a new society based on truth and equality.

→ Narayana Guru was a religious leader who preached the idea of “One Jathi, One God and One Religion for all”.

→ Some of the reformers called Dalits of Andhra Pradesh ‘Adi Andhras’.

→ Gandhiji encouraged women to participate in the Non-Cooperation Movement and Satyagrahas.

→ Ambedkar founded an Independent Labour Party to represent the interests of the Dalits.

→ Reforms: A change in any pattern.

→ Sati: In some parts of the country, upper-caste women were burnt along with the bodies of their dead husbands. This was called ‘Sati’.

→ Purdah: There ¡s a system for women covering their faces with some clothes or sarees. This is known as the Purdah system.

→ Widow marriages: In the olden days the widows were suffered a lot in their families. So some reformists worked on this and introduced remarriages to them.

→ Untouchability: It was a sin in society. Some castes in the society were treated as lower castes. And the higher caste people wouldn’t touch them. These were called untouchability.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 18 Rights Approach to Development to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 18 Rights Approach to Development

→ The right to liberty and freedom means that they can do, believe and speak out what they want without fear and live the life of their choice.

→ It is important to pass laws that sanction the economic and welfare rights of all people.

→ The Government of India has made laws related to the right to information, employment, and school education.

→ RTI prescribes that any individual can get documents from the government.

→ Under the RTI it is also compulsory for every government office to declare certain information in public even without being asked by the people.

→ RTE declares that all children of the age of 6 to 14 have the right to free education.

→ Children should be taught in their mother tongue.

→ The 86th Amendment of the Constitution, which made education a fundamental right was passed in the year 2002.

→ Human Rights: All human beings, irrespective of who they are, – their caste, gender, religion, country, etc., whether they are law-abiding or criminals have certain basic rights which cannot be denied to them.

→ RTI: Right to Information. This law prescribes that any individual can get documents like government orders, reports, advice, logbooks, rules and regulations, attendance lists, letters, etc. (Some exceptions are there).

→ RTE: Right to Education. It is a law. It declares that all children of the age 6 to 14 years have the right to free education etc.

→ Liberty: The state of being free or the ability to act as you please.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 8 Service Activities in India to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 8 Service Activities in India

→ Services rendered by different people in any specified activity are known as service activities. They are not producing anything tangible. Nothing is done free of cost It is their livelihood. Service activities are required for agriculture and industrial activities.

→ We can classify the service activities into

1. Education
2. Health and Medical Services
3. Trade
4. Public Administration
5. Defence
6. Financial activities
7. Personal Services and
8. A variety of other activities.

→ Developmental activities such as infrastructure facilities are also a part of service a&bivities.

→ The continuously changing technology has changed job opportunities for educated personnel in India.

→ Business Process Outsourcing, Telecommunications, the entertainment industry, internet cafes, public booths, the advertising agencies and banks etc., have brought in new kinds of jobs to the educated or highly skilled in India.

→ But unskilled has low earning employment opportunities in service activity.

→ These service jobs although bring a lot of income to families but at the same time bring stress to the new jobs that they do.

→ In 2012, the government has allowed foreigners to invest in selling goods in India. There will be gainers and losers from FDI in retail but the overall gains will outweigh the losses.

→ Call Centre: A call centre is an office where people work answering or making telephone calls for a particular company or customer regarding certain information.

→ Service Activities: Services rendered by duff rent people in any specified activity, are known as service activities.

→ Outsourcing: Outsourcing is a process through which a company makes the things done by outsiders and pays them. As a result number of jobs or recruitment will be reduced.

→ Information Technology: The use of electronic processes for gathering and storing information and making it available using computers.

→ Economic Development: Economic development is the process whereby the real per capita income of a country increases over a long period of time in which the number of people below the poverty line does not increase and there is the reduction of economic inequalities.

→ Retail Trade: Retail trade is the activity of selling goods directly to the public, usually in small quantities.

→ Multinational Company: A multinational Company has branches or owns companies in many different countries,
im-

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 17 Understanding Poverty to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 17 Understanding Poverty

→ The situation of chronic hunger is widespread in India.

→ The energy is measured in kilocalories (k.cal.).

→ The national calorie standard was established as 2,400 and 2,100 k.cal. per day for rural and urban areas.

→ Hunger is not just painful to bear, it is also destructive.

→ Chronic hunger and calorie deficiency are related to undernourishment.

→ Constant hunger weakens the immune system.

→ The most important contributor to poverty is the lack of regular employment.

→ More than 50% of people in India, still depend upon agricultural activities for their livelihood.

→ In Andhra Pradesh, nearly 2/5ths of all rural families are mainly agricultural laborers.

→ The Right to Work states that everyone should be given the opportunity to work for a basic living.

→ After years of struggle by people’s groups the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA), 2005 was passed.

→ Alongside employment, the government has to ensure that everyone has access to affordable food.

→ The system of ration shops distributing foodgrains and other essential items is known as the Public Distribution System.

→ Based on BPL survey results, three types of cards were issued.

→ Ration shops are also called fair-price shops.

→ Undernourishment: Lack of nutrition in the food we take 1n :

→ Agricultural growth: At present agriculture is ¡n a critical stage. Facing all the negativities, it should be taken forward. This is called agricultural growth.

→ Directive Principles: The principles which direct the government

→ Public works: Works that are useful to the public

→ Social audit: It is meant for reducing corruption in government.

→ Below Poverty Line: It is a survey that takes into account the family’s income, means of livelihood, number of meals per day, clothing, housing, migration, debt, etc., to decide whether a household is a poor household.

→ Public Distribution: The system of ration shops distributing foodgrains and other System essential items is known as the Public Distribution System.

Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 12 Carbon and its Compounds to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 12 Carbon and its Compounds

→ Carbon always forms covalent bonds.

→ Carbon is present in all substances of animal and vegetable origin.

→ The ability of carbon to unite with an indefinite number of carbon atoms in straight branched or cyclic chains is known as catenation.

→ Carbon and hydrogen combine together in different proportions to form a large number of compounds called hydrocarbons.

→ There are two types of hydrocarbons – saturated and unsaturated.

→ Alkanes are represented by the general formula C_nH_2n+2.

→ Alkenes are represented by the general formula C_nH_2n.

→ Alkynes are represented by the general formula C_nH_2n-2.

→ Organic compounds having the same functional group and common properties but differing in the molecular formula from the next member by one CH₂ group, form a homologous series and such compounds are called homologs.

→ Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas are known as isomers.

→ The decomposition of alkanes on heating in the absence of oxygen is known as cracking.

→ Methane is prepared by heating a mixture of sodium acetate and soda-lime.

→ When ethanol is heated with an excess of concentrated H₂SO₄ at 160° C ethane gas is produced.

→ Natural gas is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons mainly methane, ethane, propane, and butane.

→ Natural gas is used as a fuel.

→ Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is used as an alternative to petrol as automobile fuel.

→ Ethanol and Ethanoic acid are important carbon compounds in our daily life.

→ The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.

→ Detergents are ammonium or sulfate salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.

→ The action of soaps and detergents is based on the presence of both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups in the molecule and this helps to emulsify the oily dirt and hence its removal.

→ Alcohols are organic compounds that contain hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to a carbon atom.

→ Alcohols are neutral to litmus.

→ Alcohols are poor conductors of electricity.

→ Alcohols react with sodium to liberate hydrogen gas.

→ Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains of rings.

→ Saturated hydrocarbons on combustion give carbon dioxide and water with the liberation of heat.

→ Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions while saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reactions.

→ The occurrence of the same element in two or more different forms is known as allotropy.

→ Hybridization: The redistribution of orbitals of almost equal energy in individual atoms to give an equal number of new orbitals of equivalent energy is called hybridization.

→ Allotropy: The property of an element to exist in two or more physical forms having more or less similar chemical properties but different physical properties is called allotropy.

→ Diamond: A transparent form of carbon that is the hardest known material

→ Graphite: A soft dark grey or black form of carbon that occurs naturally as a mineral.

→ Buck minster fullerene: A hollow molecule, spherical like a football, has 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons, having 60 vertices on its surface and made from 60 atoms of carbon.

→ Nanotubes: Nanotubes are another allotropic form of carbon.

→ Catenation: Any element forms bands among its own atoms to give big molecules. This property is called catenation.

→ Tetravalency: The valency of a carbon atom is four. This valency of carbon otherwise is called tetravalency.

→ Hydrocarbons: The compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen in their molecules are called hydrocarbons.

→ Alkanes: Hydrocarbons containing only single bonds between carbon atoms are called alkanes.

→ Alkenes: Hydrocarbons containing at least one double bond between carbon atoms are called alkenes.

→ Alkynes: Hydrocarbons containing at least one triple bond between carbon atoms are called alkynes.

→ Saturated hydrocarbons: The hydrocarbons containing C – C single bonds are known as saturated hydrocarbons.

→ Unsaturated hydrocarbons: The hydrocarbons containing at least one double bond (C = C) or containing at least one triple bond (C C) between the two carbon atoms are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.

→ Functional group: An atom or a group of atoms in an organic molecule, which is responsible for the compound’s characteristic reactions and determines its properties is known as a functional group.

→ Isomerism: The phenomenon of possessing the same molecular formula but different properties by the compounds is known as isomerism.

→ Homologous series: The series of carbon compounds in which two successive compounds differ by – CH₂ unit is called homologous series.

→ Nomenclature: The naming of organic compounds is known as nomenclature.

→ Combustion: The process of burning carbon or carbon compound in excess of oxygen to give heat and light is called combustion.

→ Oxidation: The addition of oxygen to a given compound or removal of hydrogen from the compound is called oxidation.

→ Addition reaction: The reaction in which an unsaturated hydrocarbon combines with another substance to give a single product is called an addition reaction.

→ Substitution reaction: The reaction in which one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon are replaced by some

other atoms (like chlorine) is called a substitution reaction.

→ Ethanol: Ethanol is the second member of the homologous alcoholic series. Its formula is C₂H₅OH.

→ Ethanoic adds: It is the second member of the homologous series of carboxylic acids. Its formula is CH₃COOH.

→ Ester: Esters are organic compounds that contain the functional group – COO^– and whose general structural formula is

where R = H or an alkyl group and R’ is an alkyl group. R and R’ may be the same or different.

→ Esterification: The reaction in which a carboxylic acid combines with an alcohol to form an ester is called esterification.

→ SaponIfication: The process of making soap by the hydrolysis of fats and oils with alkalies is called saponification.

→ Micelle: A spherical aggregate of soap molecules in the soap solution in water is called a micelle.

→ Enrico Fermi (1901 – 1954)

• Enrico Fermi was born in Rome on September 29, 1901.
• He became a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Rome in 1927.
• Fermi received the Nobel Prize in 1938 for his “discovery of new radioactive elements produced by a neutron in radiation, and for the discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons”.
• Fermi’s momentous accomplishment caused him to be recognized as one of the great scientists of the 20th century.