AP State Board Notes

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 20 Democracy: An Evolving Idea

→ The evolution of democracy has had many ups and downs.

→ The meaning of democracy broadened and it developed many new layers and shades.

→ Democracy means a system in which those in government get their authority from the people and have to answer the people.

→ The elected government functionaries are answerable to the people in different ways.

→ Democracy is based on equality and inclusiveness.

→ Democracy requires the active participation of citizens.

→ People can participate in decision-making only if people are free to know, to discuss, to form independent opinions and express them and form associations to press for their views.

→ In a democracy, it is very important that are free and fair elections.

→ A democratic government rules within limits set by constitutional law and citizen’s rights.

→ Democracy stands much superior to any other form of government in promoting dignity and freedom of the individual

→ Most societies across the world were historically male-dominated societies.

→ Expectations from democracy also function as the criteria for judging any democratic country.

→ Union of Soviet Socialist Republic or USSR: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

→ Public discussions: Free and open discussion of some question of public interest.

→ Civil liberties: One’s freedom to exercise one’s rights as guaranteed under the laws of the country.

→ Social and economic equality: Social equality is a social state of affairs in which all people are within a specific society. Economic equalitarianism is a state of economic affair in which equality of outcome has been manufactured for all the participants of a society.

→ Internal conflicts: A struggle within the character or within a group.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 20 Democracy: An Evolving Idea to understand and remember the concept easily.

Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 7 People and Settlement to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 7 People and Settlement

→ The way we organize ourselves and our living spaces in a place is called a settlement – that is, the geographic space where we live and work.

→ For about 1.8 lakh years humans lived in bands as hunter-gatherers. They did not practice agriculture.

→ Only 10,000 years ago, some bands took to the deliberate production of food- agriculture.

→ As hunter-gatherers, they were nomadic but as agriculturists, they were increasingly sedentary.

→ As agriculture progressed, people organized their life around patterns observed in nature.

→Rulers began to encourage craftspersons to settle in urban areas. Urban settlements i. e., towns where people did not work in agriculture expanded.

→ The way we organize ourselves and our living spaces in a place is called a settlement – that is, the geographic space where we live and work.

→ For about 1.8 lakh years humans lived in bands as hunter-gatherers. They did not practice agriculture.

→ Only 10,000 years ago, some bands took to the deliberate production of food- agriculture.

→ As hunter-gatherers, they were nomadic but as agriculturists, they were increasingly sedentary.

→ As agriculture progressed, people organized their life around patterns observed in nature.

→ Rulers began to encourage craftspersons to settle in urban areas. Urban settlements i.e., towns where people did not work in agriculture expanded.

→ Many goods were produced for the market and sold to traders who carried them to far-off places.

→ In 1951 the population of Delhi was about 20,00,000 and during the last 60 years, it has grown 8 times.

→ There were different types of slum areas or areas of the poor in the city. They were unauthorized colonies at first.

→ Later some were made valid settlements as designated slums, resettlement colonies, regularized unauthorized colonies.

→ Every city usually has a master plan to design and allocate different types of areas like housing areas, markets, schools, industrial areas, office areas, parks and recreational areas, and so on.

→ People who migrate to the city looking for work occupy land without necessary permission and build on it in the way they can afford with no help or facility from anyone.

→ They remain unauthorized for long period. When the plan is finally announced these areas may be demarked for a different purpose.

→ This leads to difficult conflict situations. People face the constant threat of eviction.

→ The compensation given is insufficient to relocate back to native places or afford a residence in planned areas of the city.

→ People again occupy a new location that is not notified. Thus settlements have been growing in an unplanned manner.

→ Which places attract settlements depend on basic concepts like the site, situation, and the history of the place.

→ Site refers to topography, altitude, water characteristics, types of soils, security, shelter from natural forces, and so on.

→ Over the centuries, Visakhapatnam’s population has grown significantly.

→ The villages that are best connected have the most vibrant markets and fairs.

→ As settlements become more and more diversified in their characteristics, they also become more and more complex.

→ In India, nearly 350 million is one-third of the population live in cities and towns. People have been increasingly taking up non-agriculture work and living in cities and towns is called ’Urbanisation’.

→ Though there has been an increase in urbanization, the necessity of providing basic infrastructure that can support this growth is missing.

→ Increasing urbanization resulting in many problems like water shortage, problems of sewage, waste disposal, transportation, and many other things.

→ Settlement: The way in which people organize themselves and their living spaces in a place

→ Site: A place where a building, town, etc. was, is, or will be located

→ Situation: The situation describes the connections with other places

→ Urban: Of relating to, or located In a city (or) characteristic of the city or city life

→ Rural: A rural area is a geographical area with a low population density that is located outside cities and towns

→ Agglomeration: The act of process of gathering into a mass/A confused or jumbled mass

→ Hierarchy: A body of persons having authority

→ Megacities: Cities having more than 10 million people

→ Aerotropolis: An Aerotropolis is an urban plan in which the layout, infrastructure, and economy Is centered on an airport, existing as an airport city

→ Urbanization: People have been increasingly taking up non-agriculture work and living in cities and towns, this is called urbanization

→ Metropolitan çity: Cities having a population between 1 million to 10 millions

→ Nomadic: People kept moving from place to place

→ Hunter-gatherers: Early humans who hunted animals for meat, hide, and other uses and gathered food from plants, trees

→ Sedentary: Unlike nomadic, staying In one place.

→ Urban settlement: Towns where people did not work in agriculture

→ Slum: An area of the city that is very poor and the houses there are dirty and in bad condition

→ Unauthorized: The colonies that were arranged without the official colonies permission or not being notified in the plan

→ Regularlsed colonies: The unauthorized colonies, at a later time are approved by the officials and made as valid settlements

→ Master plan: A plan to design and allocate different types of areas like housing areas, markets, schools, industrial areas, office areas, parks, and recreational areas, and so on

→ Planned colony: A colony with a properly implemented master plan usually has all facilities in place

→ Demarcation: Government announces areas for different purposes and the constructions in that area are expected to follow such an order

→ Establishment: People who migrate to the city looking for work occupy the land of slum without necessary permission and build on it in the way they can afford with no help or facility from anyone

→ Hamlet: A group of houses within the revenue village

→ Reven tie village: A village with defined borders

→ Towns: All the urban areas having a population between 5000 to 1 lakh

→ Cities/class of cities: Urban areas having a population between 1 lakh and 1 million.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 19 Expansion of Democracy to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 19 Expansion of Democracy

→ Libya was a poor country. It was colonized by Italy and became free in 1951.

→ Later power was transferred to King Idris. In 1959 vast resources of petroleum were found in Libya.

→ The king and a few powerful families cornered most of this (sale of oil) new wealth.

→ In the year 1969, Gaddafi and a group of 70 young army officers took over the control of Libya.

→ Monarchy was abolished. “Socialist Libyan Arab Republic” was established under the leadership of “Revolutionary Command Council.”

→ Libya developed in all aspects.

→ Though it was a republic everything was controlled by Gaddafi and the RCC.

→ People revolted; UNO gave support; USA, USSR, and Britain extended their help, and finally, Gaddafi regime was overthrown and a new democratic government was sworn in on 14th Nov. 2012.

→ Myanmar got independence from British rule.

→ Aung San, a leader of the Burman ethnic group was assassinated.

→ The army generals have been ruling the country since then.

→ Unlike Libya, Burma did not see any development and became an impoverished country.

→ Nation League for Democracy (NLD) led by “Suu Kyi” won a majority (80%) of the seats though she was in prison.

→ There was also international pressure created through sanctions.

→ An election was held in 2010. Suu Kyi was banned from contesting the 2010 election and was released from her house arrest only after the elections.

→ In 2011 Suu Kyi’s National League of Democracy contested and have won 43 out of 45 parliamentary seats that were vacant. This is considered the beginning of democracy in Burma.

→ In the 20th century, democracy became the slogan of anti-colonial struggles in Asia.

→ Some of the countries were able to attain independence but many of them could not build stable democracies, e.g.: Libya, Burma, and Myanmar.

→ In some countries, communism gained popularity and was broken also. Example – USSR which was disintegrated and CIS formed.

→ Thus we can conclude that a democracy that respects the freedom and rights of all people may be the best way to solve the complete problems the countries face today.

→ Nomadic animal herders: People who wander from place to place in search of livelihood along with animals like, sheep, goats, etc.

→ Urbanization: 1) Migration of people from villages to cities.
2) Increase in the number of cities.

→ Political corruption: Making money through illegal ways or cheating others by the political leaders.

→ House arrest: Basing on the judicial judgment if a person is forbidden or prohibited to come out of his house and no other person is allowed to meet him, can be termed as house arrest.

→ Dictatorship: If sovereignty vests in the hands of one single person, it is called “Dictatorship”.

→ Monarchy: It is a political system ¡n which a king or a queen, instead of an elected person rules the country.

→ Feudalism: It is a social system under which the political power was with large warrior landlords who controlled the villages and peasants.

→ Nobel Prize Acceptance
Suu Kyi was awarded Nobel Prize for Peace in 1991, while still under house arrest. It was her son who delivered the speech. Let us read an extract from the speech:

“… she would begin by saying that she accepts the Nobel Prize for Peace not in her own name but in the name of all the people of Burma.
Theirs is the prize and theirs will be the eventual victory in Burma’s long struggle for peace, freedom, and democracy.

… I personally believe that by her own dedication and personal sacrifice she has come to be a worthy symbol through whom the plight of all the people of Burma may be recognized. The plight of those in the countryside and towns, living in poverty and destitution, those in prison, battered and tortured; the plight of the young people, the hope of Burma, dying of malaria in the jungles to which they have fled; that of the Buddhist monks, beaten and dishonored.”

…. Aung San Suu Kyi says, “The quest for democracy in Burma is the struggle of people to live whole, meaningful lives as free and equal members of the world community. It is part of the unceasing human endeavor to prove that the spirit of man can transcend the flaws of his nature.”

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 18 Impact of Colonialism in India to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 18 Impact of Colonialism in India

→ Adivasis used forests for their domestic purposes, for building their houses, never cut the entire forests. They used to cut the old trees and plant new trees. So the forests were protected

→ Large quantities of wood were needed to meet the growing requirements during British rule.

→ Forest departments were established

→ Adivasis revolted against the forest departments, police and moneylenders.

→ During British rule, our industries or goods were not protected But the British goods were protected by levying tax on Indian goods.

→ During the 1st World War, the import of foreign goods into India fell sharply and industrialization started in India.

→ The Indian industry faced many difficulties. It was very tough for Indian industry to compete with British goods.

→ Working conditions of labour were bad, no fixed wages, no weekly off, long working hours, fines and penalties were common.

→ Labour struggled against their oppressive working conditions.

→ Labour organizations like Girni Kamgar, the Mazdoor Mahajan were established in the first quarter of the 20th century. The labour officers were appointed But the labourers did not agree to this. They wanted their own organizations to solve their problems.

→ Reserved forest: The products of which are not used now and kept under government for the future.

→ Protected forest: The forests that are under the protection

→ Auctioning: A public meeting where goods are sold to the person who offers the highest money for the goods.

→ Social Workers: Social workers are persons who are at the service of the people or society.

→ Industrialist: Industrialists are the persons who establish industries and promote them.

→ Difficulties of Indian Industries:

→ Working conditions of labour:

Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 6 The People to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 6 The People

→ The population is a pivotal element in social studies.

→ A census is a procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population.

→ The census shows us the age structure, the sex ratio, the literacy rate, and life expectancy.

→ The numbers, distribution, and composition of the population are always changing. The birth rate is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year.

→ Population change can be expressed in two ways:

1. as absolute numbers and
2. as a percentage change.

→ The total fertility rate is the number of children that are likely to be born to a woman if she were to live to the end of her childbearing years and bear children in accordance with the current pattern.

→ Migration is the movement of people across regions and territories.

→ India is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.

→ Population growth: Increase In the number of people who inhabit a territory or state.

→ Population density: It is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume.

→ Sex ratio: It Is the ratio of males to females In a population.

→ Fertility rate: It is a term used to refer to the capability of people in a given region to give birth.

→ Population distribution: It is the pattern or arrangement of how people live in a particular area.

→ Infanticide: The crime of killing an infant.

→ literacy rate: It is the ability to read and write one’s own name and further for knowledge and interest.

→ Census: The procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 17 Colonialism in Latin America, Asia and Africa to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 17 Colonialism in Latin America, Asia and Africa

→ Some 600years ago the people of the world traveled very little. The Europeans wanted to discover sea routes to India, China, etc.

→ All European power, especially Spain, Portugal Denmark, England, and France sent expeditions to find out sea routes.

→ Columbus discovered America, Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to India.

→ Latin Americas were brought under the control of Spain and Portugal So many resources were traded with.

→ Revolts broke out and the President of the USA formulated ‘the Munroe Doctrine.

→ England was successful in colonizing most of India by 1757 and by 1857 India came to be directly ruled by the queen of English.

→ Unlike India, China was not fully colonized Opium wars were fought and the opium trade was accepted in China. But it was forced to accept trade with all colonial powers with equal rights. China was cut into spheres of influence.

→ The Dutch were successful in colonizing Indonesia. They ruled till the end of World War II.

→ Different African countries were colonized by different European powers.

→ Congo came to be ruled by Belgium. South Africa was an

→ Colonialism: Colonialism is a practice by which a powerful country directly controls less powerful countries and uses its resources to increase its own power and wealth.

→ Latin America: South America along with Central America is known as Latin America.

→ Ottoman Empire: The Turkist empire during the middle ages

→ Exploration: The act of traveling through a place in order to find out about it.

→ Apartheid: Racial discrimination followed in South Africa is known as Apartheid.

→ Haciendas: Haciendas were vast estates in South America that contained silver and copper mines, agricultural land, and also factories.

→ Munroe Doctrine: The Munroe doctrine is formulated by the President of the USA James Munroe according to which no European power would be allowed to build colonies in the American countries and the US would not interfere in the affairs of Europe or colonies in other continents.

→ Opium wars: Opium wars were the wars fought between China and England.

Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Biology Notes Chapter 4 Excretion to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Biology Notes Chapter 4 Excretion

→ Excretion is the term coined for all the biological processes involved in the separation and removal of wastes or non-useful products from the body.

→ The waste products include carbon dioxide, water, nitrogenous compounds like ammonia, urea, uric acid, bile pigments, excess salts, etc.

→ A human excretory system consisting of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

→ The kidney is bean-shaped from the inner side of each kidney, has fissure or hilus.

→ Through the hilus renal artery enters and the renal vein and ureter exit.

→ Each kidney is composed of a large number of uriniferous tubules or nephrons, which are structural and functional units of the kidney.

→ A nephron comprises Glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT), Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT), and collecting tubule.

→ Urine formation occurs in four stages: They are

1. Glomerular filtration,
2. Tubular reabsorption,
3. Tubular secretion and
4. The concentration of urine.

→ Glomerulus filtrate is also called primary urine.

→ Primary urine is almost equal to blood in chemical composition except for the presence of blood cells.

→ Useful substances in primary urine are reabsorbed into the peritubular network.

→ In tubular secretion, some other wastes like extra salts, ions of K⁺, Na⁺, Cl^– and H⁺ secretes from peritubular capillaries into the distal convoluted tubules.

→ 75% of the water content of the nephric filtrate is reabsorbed in the region of the proximal convoluted tubule.

→ Kidneys remove nitrogenous waste from the body, maintains water balance (osmoregulation), salt content, pH, and blood pressure in the human body.

→ The concentration of urine takes place in the area of collecting tubes in the presence of a hormone called vasopressin.

→ The absence of vasopressin hormone produces dilute urine.

→ The movement of urine in the ureter is through peristalsis.

→ The urinary bladder opens into the urethra which is 4 cm long in females and about 20 cm long in males.

→ The urethra’s opening is separate in females but is in common with the reproductive tract in males (urinogenital duct).

→ The discharge of urine from the body is called micturition.

→ Urine has amber color due to the presence of urochrome.

→ Urine contains 96% of water, 2.5% of organic substances, and 1.5% of inorganic solutes.

→ Complete and irreversible kidney failure is called ‘End-Stage Renal Disease’ (ESRD).

→ Uremia is the condition in which kidneys stop working completely and it results in a body being filled with extra water and waste products.

→ The dialysis machine is used to filter the blood of a person whose kidneys are damaged. The process is called ‘hemodialysis.’

→ Kidney transplantation is a permanent solution for renal failure patients.

→ The process of transplantation of organs from brain-dead patients to another is called ‘cadaver transplantation.’

→ The first kidney transplantation was performed by Dr. Charles Hufnagel in Washington, the USA in 1954.

→ In India, the first kidney transplantation was done on 1st December 1971 at the Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamilnadu.

→ Lungs, skin, liver have their own specific functions but carry out excretion as a secondary function.

→ Different animals have different excretory organs.

• Eg. amoeba and paramoecium – contractile vacuole.
• Phylum Excretory organs and systems.
• Platyhelminthes: Flame cells
• Annelids: Nephridia
• Arthropoda: Green glands, Malpighian tubules
• Mollusca: Meta nephridia
• Echinodermata: Water vascular system
• Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals: Kidneys
• Porifera, coelenterates: Water bathes almost all their cells
• Protozoa: Simple diffusion from the body surface into the surrounding water.

→ In plants, there are no specific organs to excrete wastes.

→ Plants can get rid of excess water by a process like transpiration and guttation.

→ In plants, waste products may be stored in leaves, bark, and fruits.

→ Waste gets stored in the fruits in the form of solid bodies called Raphides.

→ The biochemical substances produced in plants are of two types, primary metabolites, and secondary metabolites.

→ Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are primary metabolites.

→ Alkaloids, Tannins, Resins, Gums, and Latex, etc., are called secondary metabolites which do not require normal growth and development.

→ Alkaloids are nitrogenous by-products and poisonous.

→ Tannins are carbon compounds used in the leather industry and medicines.
Eg.: Cassia, Acacia.

→ Resin occurs mostly in Gymnosperms in specialized resin passages. They are used in varnishes.

→ Gum is a sticky substance that comes out when branches are cut in plants like Neem, Acacia.

→ Latex is a sticky, milky white substance secreted by plants.

→ From the latex of Heaven, Braziliensis rubber is prepared and from the latex of jatropha, bio-diesel is prepared.

→ Excretion is the removal of material from a living being, whereas secretion is the movement of materials from one point to another points.

→ Creatine: Nitrogenous organic acid occurs naturally in vertebrates, helps to supply energy to all cells in the body primarily muscles. This is achieved by increasing the formation of AiR

→ Tubular fluid: The filtered out fluid from the glomerulus contains waste molecules, nutrient molecules, and water. From the glomerulus, this fluid enters the tubular portion of the nephron.

→ Perftubular: Around the tubes, the renal tubule of nephrons ¡s surrounded by peritubular capillaries formed from an efferent arteriole.

→ Podocyte: These are single-layered squamous epithelial cells lining the glomerulus. The fine pores present between podocyte cells allows the passage of materials filtered out of the glomerulus.

→ Hyper – osmotIc: It ¡s more concentrated with solutes and has a higher osmotic pressure than blood plasma. This solution bathes and surrounds Interstitial fluids the cells of multicellular animals.

→ Glomerulus: It is a bunch of fine blood capillaries developed from an afferent arteriole. The blood ¡s filtered through the capillaries of the glomerulus into Bowman’s capsule.

→ PCT (Proximal Convoluted Tubule): It is the first part of the renal tubule of Nephron that starts from Bowman’s capsule. Useful substances in primary urine are reabsorbed into the peritubular network.

→ DCI’ (Distal Convoluted Tubule): It s the last part of the renal tubule of Nephron. In DCT some other wastes like extra salts, ions of K⁺, Na⁺, Cl^– and H⁺ are secreted from peritubular capillaries into DCT.

→ Afferent Arteriole: It forms a capillary network called glomerulus inside the Bowman’s capsule. It brings the pressured blood to the glomerulus and the pressure produces the flow of plasma fluids into the tubule.

→ Efferent ArterIole: ft is formed from Afferent arteriole. They play an important role in maintaining the glomerular filtration rate.

→ Calyces: Renal calyces are parts of the kidney that collect urine before it passes further into the urinary tract. These are the parts of the renal pelvis.

→ Micturition: It is the discharge of urine.

→ Urochrome: It is a pigment that causes the yellow color in urine. It is a breakdown product of the blood’s hemoglobin and is removed by the kidneys.

→ Henle’s loop: It is the portion of the nephron that leads from the proximal convoluted tubule to the distal convoluted tubule. It is named after its discoverer a German Anatomist Friedrich Gustav, Jakob Henle. Its main function is to create a concentration gradian in the medulla of the kidney.

→ Dialyzer: A medical instrument for separating substances in solution by unequal diffusion through a semi-permeable membrane.

→ Hemodialysis: It is the process of filtering the blood of a person by using a dialysis machine.

→ Anticoagulant: It does not allow the blood to clot. Eg. Heparin.

→ Alkaloid: Alkaloids are nitrogenous by-products and poisonous which are stored in different parts of the plant.

→ Biodiesel: The fuel which is obtained from biological materials of plants and animals.

→ Excretion: It is a biological process involved in the separation and removal of wastes or non-useful products from the body.

→ Michigan body: It ¡s the first part of Nephron. It consists of a blind cup-shaped broader end of the nephron called Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus.

→ Specimen: An individual animal, a plant, piece of mineral, etc., used as an example of its species or type for scientific study or display.

→ Hilus: The inner side opening of the kidney through which renal artery enters and exits of renal vein and the ureter.

→ Ureters: A pair of whitish, narrow stretch and expandable muscular tubes of 30 cm length arise from the hilus of the kidneys.

→ Cortex: Dark-colored outer zone of the kidney.

→ Medulla: Pale-colored inner zone of the kidney.

→ Nephron: It is also called a uriniferous tubule. It is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It filters the blood, reabsorbs and what is needed, and excretes what is not needed as urine.

→ Bowman’s capsule: It is the cup-shaped broader end of the nephron.

→ PelvIs: It is a funnel-like dilated proximal part of the ureter in the kidney. It is the point of convergence of two or three major calyces.

→ Distensible: Able to stretch and expand.

→ Peristalsis: The involuntary wave-like muscular movement in the alimentary canal or ureter.

→ Sphincter: A ring of muscle that contracts to close an opening.

→ Urethra: It is a tube that takes urine from the urinary bladder to the outside.

→ Amber color: It is a pure chroma color, located on the color wheel midway between yellow and orange.

→ Dialysis: The chemical bath used in dialysis to draw toxins out of the bloodstream and supply electrolytes and other chemicals to the bloodstream.

→ Transplantation: An operation moving an organ from one organism to another.

→ Immune system: It ¡s a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against attack by foreign invaders.

→ Braindead: It is the irreversible end of brain activity. Patients classified as brain dead can have their organs surgically removed for organ donation.

→ Contradilve vacuoles: It is a subcellular structure involved in osmoregulation. It’s are found predominantly in protists and in unicellular algae.

→ Guttation: The secretion of droplets of water from the pores of plants.

→ Yam: The edible starchy tuber of a climbing plant widely distributed in tropical and subtropical countries. (Pendulum in Telugu)

→ Chicle: It Is a natural gum traditionally used in making chewing gum and other products. It is collected from several species of Meso-American trees.

→ Alkaloid: These are nitrogenous by-products and poisonous. These are stored in different parts of the plants.

→ Osmoregulation: The process of regulating water contents and ion concentration in the body is called osmoregulation.

→ William John Kolff (1911 – 2009):

• William John Kolif invented the first practical artificial kidney in 1947.
• He was a pioneer of Haemodialysis as well as in the field of artificial organs.
• He constructed a dialysis machine with which filtered the blood artificially.
• The machine works on simple principles of diffusion and filtration across a semipermeable membrane.

Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 5 Indian Rivers and Water Resources to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 5 Indian Rivers and Water Resources

→ On the basis of its origin, the drainage system in India is divided into the Himalayan rivers and the Peninsular rivers.

→ The Himalayan rivers are perennial because they are supplied by rainfall as well as melting snow.

→ The Indus originates in the northern slopes of the Kailash range in Tibet near Lake Manasarovar.

→ A majority of the tributaries of Ganga originate in the Himalayas but some of them have their source in the peninsular plateau like the Chambal, the Sindh, the Betwa, the Ken, and the Son.

→ The Brahmaputra (also known as Tsangpo in Tibet) rises from the snout of the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near Manasarovar.

→ The major river systems of the peninsular drainage are the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Cauveri.

→ Surface flow includes rivers, streams, canals, and other flows on the surface of the water.

→ Precipitation includes snow, dew, hail, etc.

→ Some amount of water would flow out of the village as surface flows through streams. Water is used for agriculture, for domestic purposes and for animals, and for industrial use.

→ The annual flows and stocks that recharge wells and tube wells in the water that is available for use.

→ Rampant felling of trees and mining activity is resulting in forest degradation, along with the destruction of the habitat of highly threatened flora and fauna in the Tungabhadra basin.

→ Inadequate tree cover leads to water run-off as surface flow without getting a chance to recharge the underground system.

→ While increased industrialization and growth of urban areas have improved standards of living for some, the same activities have caused pollution, especially by industrial units.

→ There has been a mismatch between keeping pace with development activities on various fronts and providing sanitation and drinking water supply for all sections of society, both in small towns and rural areas.

→ Continuous contour trenches were dug on hill slopes to arrest the erosion of soil, harvest water, and encourage the growth of grass in Hiware Bazar of Maharashtra.

→ A number of water harvesting structures were also built in the village-check dams, percolation tanks, and loose boulder structures in Hiware Bazar.

→ Plantations on forest lands and roadsides were also part of the program in Hiware Bazar.

→ However one of the learnings has been that groundwater extraction cannot be controlled at a small unit or within a village boundary.

→ State governments have often chosen to increase power subsidies to make extraction of even deeper layers of groundwater possible.

→ Flow resource: Water ¡s a flow resource

→ Groundwater: Underground water that is held in the soil and rocks

→ Drainage: The discharge of water from any area through a system of natural streams with an arrangement of the main river and its tributaries

→ Water sharing Law: A law regarding water sharing among states

→ Watershed: The elevated boundary line that separates the headstreams that are tributary to different river basins

→ Catebment area: The area from which rain flows into a particular river or lake

→ Drought: A long period when there is little or no rain

→ Percolation: The process of moving gradually through a surface that has very small holes or spaces in It

→ Physiographic units: Physiography refers to the study of physical feature or landforms of the earth and their relation to one another-so- physical features

→ ‘V’ shaped valleys: The valleys that are ‘V’ shaped in cross-section generally are the product of cutting – down by a river

→ Tributary: A stream or a river that joins a larger river is said to be the tributary of the larger river

→ Rivulets: Small rivers or streams Continuous

→ Contour Trenches: Number of horizontal trenches made on the hill slopes to arrest the erosion of soil, harvest water, and encourage the growth of grass

→ Meanders: A curve In the course of a river that continually swings from side to side in wide loops as it progresses in a flat area.

→ Water cycle: Hydrological cycle = The circulation of water from the oceans to the atmosphere, back to the land, and so back to the oceans

→ Water budget: An estimate of inflow of water (precipitation + surface flow + groundwater flow) and outflow of water (evaporation + transpiration + flowing out water + used water) for an area = or a region during the year

→ Inflow: For any area inflow of water is the total of precipitation, groundwater flow, and surface flow

→ PrecipitatIon: The primary mechanism for transporting water from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth in the forms of snow, dew, hail, rain, etc.

→ Evaporation: The turning of water into vapor, takes place all the tun In water bodies like lakes, rivers, seas, and oceans, etc.

→ Transpiration: The process in which long things give off water Into the atmosphere through their breathing is called transpiration

→ Evapotranspiration: The total amount of water added to the atmosphere from both evaporation and transpiration Is called ‘evapotranspiration’

→ Aquifer: A layer of rock that holds water and allows water to percolate through it

→ Recharging of water: The percolation of water into the underground and becoming available for usage

→ Flash flood: A sudden transient rush of water amounting to a short-lived flood caused due to a violent rainstorm

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 16 Social Protest Movements to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 16 Social Protest Movements

→ Industrialization and the emergence of nation-states changed the lives of people in very basic ways.

→ In England, political protest against the harsh working conditions in factories kept increasing.

→ The workers expressed their anger and frustration in numerous forms of protest.

→ Socialism gained its importance. It demanded public control of resources. It opposed the concentration of wealth in few hands.

→ Thinkers like Plato and Thomas Moore were early thinkers.

→ Babeufbelieved in the abolition of private property and common enjoyment of land and its fruits.

→ Simon of France advocated for public control of property through central planning. He believed in building cooperative villages.

→ Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels asked workers to fight not only for better wages but for ending the capitalist system itself.

→ Many Indian thinkers were socialists.

→ Women did not have access to property or civil rights like voting etc.

→ They fought for their rights. Russian Revolution was the first to grant rights to all women in 1917. England gave rights to all women by 1928.

→ Even though legal equality was achieved, real equality still deludes women all over the world.

→ Socialism: Socialism is an economic system in which production and means of production are under the control of private persons.

→ Luddism: Luddism was a worker’s movement led by Ned Ludd.

→ Orienta lists: An orientalist is someone from the west who studies the language, culture, history, or customs of countries of east Asia i.e., Japan, China, etc.

→ Feminism: Feminism is the belief and aims that women should have the same rights – power and opportunities as men.

→ Capitalism: Capitalism is an economic system in which production and means of production are under the control of private people.

→ Revolutionaries: Revolutionaries are bodies of people which attempt to bring the desired change in the existing system of society.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 15 Industrialisation and Social Change to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 15 Industrialisation and Social Change

→ The transformation of industry and the economy in Britain between the 1780s and the 1850s is called the ‘first industrial revolution.

→ Industrialization led to greater prosperity for some.

→ Britain was the first country to experience modern industrialization.

→ On the basis of iron, coal, and textiles Britain built up a type of civilization, which has been copied all around the world.

→ Britain was lucky in possessing excellent coking coal and high-grade iron ore in the same basins or even the same seams.

→ Steam power was first used in mining industries.

→ The need to transport raw materials and manufactured products led to the improvement of roads and the digging of canals in England.

→ A survey in 1842 revealed that the average lifespan of workers was lower than that of any other social group in cities.

→ While industrialization began early in England, in the 18th century, it was not until the 1850s and 1870s that industrial production became prominent in Germany and France.

→ Prussia exploited its rich coalfields, and iron deposits in order to create a flourishing steel industry.

→ Industrialization: It is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial one.

→ Smelting: Iron is extracted as pure liquid metal from the ore by a process called smelting.

→ Industrial Revolution: The complex of socio-economic changes, such as the ones that took place in England in the late 18th century, that are brought about when extensive mechanization of production systems results in a shift from home-based hand manufacturing to large-scale factory production.

→ Steam Power: Steam power propelled first Britain and then the world into the industrial revolution and into increasing mechanization of all aspects of human endeavor, warfare of course included,

→ Hydraulic Power: Hydroelectric power

→ Mechanization: Using a machine to do something that used to be done by hand.

→ Transformation: A marked change. as in appearance or character, usually for the better.

→ Evaporation: The process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 14 Democratic and Nationalist Revolutions 19th Century to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 14 Democratic and Nationalist Revolutions 19th Century

→ The democratic and nationalist movements led to the emergence of the nation-state in place of the multinational dynastic empires of Europe.

→ European countries were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse people. They belonged to different ethnic groups, spoke different languages.

→ Socially and politically a lauded aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. But due to access to education and industrialization a new middle class had emerged.

→ The term “Liberalism” derives from the Latin root “Liber” meaning free. Liberalism insists on freedom in different aspects.

→ Conservatives believed in the establishment of traditional institutions of state and society.

→ In 1815 representatives of the European powers collectively defeated Napolean, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.

→ Europe witnessed two revolutions one in 1830 and another in 1848 which occurred during the reign of Charles X and Louis Philippe respectively. Both of them were forced to abdicate.

→ The nationalist feeling was widespread in Germany and finally, Germany was united under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck.

→ Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation. Sardinia – Piedmont State took the lead and United Italy. Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour played important roles. Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of United Italy.

→ Despotism: Despotism is a cruel and unfair government by a ruler or rulers who have a lot of power.

→ Nationalism: 1. Love and respect for his country. 2. The desire by a group of people of the same race, religion, origin, etc., to form an independent country.

→ Liberalism: It is a political philosophy that insists on freedom in all aspects.

→ Bureaucracy: It is an administrative system operated by a large number of officials.

→ Romanticism: Romanticism is the cultural movement of the 18th and 19th centuries which was concerned with the expression of an individual’s feelings and emotions.

→ New middle class: A new social group, who had access to education and new ideas and got jobs due to industrialization and commercialization, were called the New Middle class during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 3 Is Matter Pure? to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 3 Is Matter Pure?

→ In our day-to-day language, pure means something with no adulteration.

→ The mixture is made up of two or more components that are not chemically combined.

→ Mixtures are homogeneous and heterogeneous.

→ The substance is homogeneous, when its composition doesn’t change, no matter which part of the substance we take for examination.

→ A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture made up of different substances, or the same substance in different stages which are not uniformly distributed in it.

→ The solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances that we cannot separate by filtration.

→ The solution has two components i.e., solvent and solute.

→ The solvent is the substance that dissolves others in it.

→ The solute is the substance, that dissolved in the solvent,

→ An amount of solute present in a saturated solution at a certain temperature is called its solubility.

→ When no more solute can be dissolved in the solution at a certain temperature, it is said to be a saturated solution.

→ If the amount of solute contained in a solution is less than the saturation level, it is called an unsaturated solution.

→ A solution is said to be dilute if the amount of solute is little and concentrate if the amount of solute is large.

→ The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in grams presents per 100 ml or per 100 g of the solution.

→ Materials that are insoluble in a solvent and have particles that are visible to naked eyes are called suspension. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.

→ A mixture of two liquids that do not mix and settle into layers when they are left undisturbed is called emulsion.

→ Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which the particle size is too small to be seen with the naked eye, but is big enough to scatter light.

→ Colloids consist of two phases: disperse phase and dispersion medium.

→ The scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect.

→ We can use different techniques like handpicking, sieving/filtration, flotation, crystallization, chromatography, sublimation, evaporation, distillation, fractional distillation, centrifugation, etc. to separate mixtures.

→ Pure substances can be elements or compounds.

→ An element is a form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions.

→ A compound is a substance composed of two or more different types of elements, chemically combined in a fixed proportion.

→ Properties of compounds are different from their constituent elements, whereas mixture shows the properties of its constituting elements or compounds.

→ Pure substance: A substance is said to be pure i.e., homogeneous when the composition doesn’t change, no matter which part of the substance you take for examination.

→ Mixture: A mixture is generally made of two or more components that are not chemically combined.

→ Heterogeneous: A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture made up of different mixture substances or the same substance in different states which are not uniformly distributed in it.

→ Homogeneous: In a homogeneous mixture the components of the mixture are mixture uniformly distributed throughout it.

→ Solution: ‘The homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is that we can not separate them by the process of filtration called a solution.

→ Suspension. Materials that are insoluble in a solvent and have particles that are visible to naked eyes, form suspension. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.

→ Colloids: These are heterogeneous in nature and always consist of at least two types of phases and scatter a beam of visible light.

→ Colloidal dispersions: Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which the particle size is too small to be seen with the naked eye but big enough to scatter light.

→ Solvent: The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it (usually the component present in larger quantity) is called the solvent.

→ Solute: The component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent, (usually the component present in lesser quantity) is called the solute.

→ Concentration: The amount of solute present in a given amount of solution
(or)
The amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of solution is called the concentration of the solution.

→ Tyndall effect: The scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect.

→ Evaporation: Evaporation is a technique of separation of mixtures like salt and water or sugar and water, etc.

→ Centrifuge: Centrifuge ¡s a machine used to separate the mixtures like cream from milk, etc.

→ Miscible liquid: A liquid is said to be miscible if it dissolves completely in another liquid.

→ Immiscible liquid: An immiscible liquid is one that doesn’t dissolve but forms a layer over another liquid and can be separated easily.

→ Chromatography: Chromatography is a laboratory technique for the separation of mixtures into their individual components like inks and dyes.

→ Distillation: Distillation is used in the separation of components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids whose boiling points have a large difference (greater than 25°C).

→ Fractional distillation: Fractional distillation process is used to separate two or more miscible liquids when the difference in their boiling points is less than 25°C.

→ Element: An element is a basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions.

→ Compounds: Compounds are pure substances that can be separated into two or more components only by means of a chemical reaction.

→ Disperse phase: It is the substance that presents in small proportion and consists of particles of the colloidal size of mm to 100 nm.

→ Dispersion medium: It is the medium in which the colloidal particles are dispersed.

→ Emulsion: Emulsion is a mixture consisting of two liquids, that do not mix and settle into layers when they are left undisturbed.

→ Humphry Davy:

• Humphry Davy was born on 17 December 1778 and died on 29 May 1829.
• He was an English chemist and inventor.
• He discovered potassium, sodium, and boron.
• He invented the Davy lamp.