Srinivas

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 7 Electricity – Current and Its Effect to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 7 Electricity – Current and Its Effect

→ The dry cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy.

→ Symbols play an important role in our life.

→ Symbols convey precise meaning with few descriptions.

→ The switch can be placed anywhere in the circuit.

→ In a series circuit, electricity has only one path to flow through.

→ A parallel circuit has more than one path for the flow of electricity.

→ Connecting small cells in series, we get a battery.

→ In a series connection of bulbs, if one bulb gets fused, all the other bulbs in the series will stop glowing.

→ All components in our houses are connected in parallel.

→ The filament of the bulb heats up due to the current flowing through it.

→ An electric iron, electric cooker, and electric heater contain a coil of wire made up of Nichrome.

→ This Nichrome is called the filament of the appliance.

→ The wires used for making electric circuits do not normally become hot.

→ Wastage of electricity can be reduced by using fluorescent tube lights in place of bulbs. Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB) are increasingly being used in place of fuses.

→ 1 kilowatt (KW) is 1000 watts (W).

→ An electric cell is a source of electric energy.

→The two terminals of an electric cell are called positive (+ve) and negative (-ve).

→ The battery cells in the torchlight are kept in series.

→ An electric bulb has a filament that is connected to its terminals.

→ An electric bulb glows when an electric current passes through it.

→ In a closed electric circuit, the electric current passes from one terminal of the electric cell to the other terminal.

→ The switch is a single device that is used either to break the electric circuit or to complete it.

→ The safety device used in, an electric circuit is a fuse.

→ Cell: A single unit for electrolysis or conversion of chemical into electric energy, usually consisting of a container with electrodes and an electrolyte; a battery also called electrochemical cell.

→ Battery: Two or more connected cells that produce a direct current by converting chemical energy to electrical energy.

→ Fuse: Safety device used in an electric circuit.

→ Serles circuit: An electric circuit connected so that current passes through each circuit element in turn without branching.

→ Parallel circuit: Circuits in which a power source is directly connected to two or more components are called parallel circuits.

→ Bulbs in series: A number of bulbs arranged or coming one after the other in succession.

→ Bulbs in parallel: A number of bulbs arranged directly.

→ Tube light: A lamp that produces visible light by fluorescence, especially a glass tube whose inner wall is coated with a material that fluoresces when an electrical current causes a vapor within the tube to discharge electrons.

→ Compact fluorescent Lamps: CFLs use less power and have a longer rated life,

→ Miniature Circuit Breaker: A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or a short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow.
Unlike a fuse.

→ Watt: An International System unit of power equal to one joule per second.

→ Circuit diagram: A schematic drawing of the wiring of an electrical system

→ Heating effect of current: Electrical energy converts into heat energy by a specialized device.

→ Switch: A device used to either break the circuit or to complete it.

→ Michael Faraday (1791-1867):
Michael Faraday observed that by moving a magnet in and out of a coil. We can make electric current flow thíough the coil. Using thiš he built the first electric generator or dynamo in 1831. He also invented the transformer.

→ Galileo: Galileo was an Italian scientist. He was born on 15th February 1564 in Italy. The first telescope of the world was fabricated by Galileo.
He proved that the milky way is composed of millions of stars.

In 1616, he proved for the first time that the sun was the center of the universe and the earth revolves around the sun. The church officials could riot tolerate Galileo‘s findings and sent him to jail. In the jail, the lie became blind arid died in January 1642.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 6 Weather and Climate to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 6 Weather and Climate

→ Farmers listen to the Radio or watch T.V. for a weather forecast.

→ Hyderabad is the capital of Telangana.

→ The weather is a complex phenomenon that can vary over very short periods of time.

→ We have different types of measuring instruments to measure different weather components.

→ The weather of a place can change every day.

→ Six invented the maximum-minimum thermometer.

→ Wind speed and direction are measured with Anemometer.

→ Raingusage is also called Udometer.

→ We know the equatorial region is very hot and the polar region is very cold.

→ The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) studies the climate of our country. Weather affects our life.

→ The factors hot, cold, winds, rain, etc describe the weather of a place.

→ We can measure the temperature of a place with maximum and minimum thermometers.

→ The quantity of water vapor (moisture) in the air is humidity.

→ Humidity is measured by a hydrometer.

→ Rainfall of a particular place is expressed in millimeters (mm), centimeters (cm) and measured with a rain gauge.

→ Anemometer is used to measure wind speed.

→ The climate of a place can be defined after 25 years of weather observations.

→ We adjust to the climate to live comfortably.

→ The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) studies the climate of our country.

→ Weather: The state of the atmosphere at a given time and place, with respect to variables such as temperature, moisture, wind velocity, and barometric pressure.

→ Forecast: To estimate or calculate in advance, especially to predict (weather conditions) by analysis of meteorological data.

→ Temperature: The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment.

→ Climate: The meteorological conditions, including temperature, precipitation, and wind that characteristically prevail in a particular region.

→ HumidIty: ‘I’he amouñt of moisture in the air.

→ Meteorology: The science that deals with the phenomena of the atmosphere, especially weather and weather conditions.

→ Prediction: Something foretold

→ Rain gauge: A device for measuring rainfall. Also called Pluviometer, Udometer, Ombrorneter.

→ Plowing: A farm implement consisting of a heavy blade at the end of a beam, usually hitched to a draft team or motor vehicle and used for breaking up soil and cutting furrows in preparation for sowing.

→ Thermometer: An instrument for measuring temperature, especially one having a graduated glass tube with a bulb containing a liquid, typically mercury or colored alcohol, that expands and rises in the tube as the temperature increases.

→ Many people died during the tsunami in Andaman and Nicobar islands in 2004. But the tribals who observed the ocean moving back and birds making sounds moved away from danger. They could predict the danger and save their lives.

The people living in an area adjust to the conditions of climate. For example, the rainfall has to be relatively less for the past two decades. Even in Rayalaseema during the rainy season, the tanks and canals remain dry. The dried canals and tanks are now used for other purposes. The less rainfall has also led to developing ways to use less water. The change in rainfall pattern shows there may be shifts in climate over long periods of time. In areas that do not have a climate of rain when it rains heavily there is no way to drain out the water. As a result, many areas were flooded and submerged in Kurnool in 2010 and so in other parts of Rayalaseema

→ Sir Issac Newton:

• Sir Issac Newton was the discoverer of Gravity laws. Newton was born on 25-12-1 642 at Lincolnshire.
• He was born prematurely to a frustrated widow as a tiny tot, undersized, low birth weight, hardly expected to survive.
• He worked as a professor of Mathematics at the age of 27 in Trinity College.
• Newton deserved the three letters ‘NEW’ ¡n his name by virtue of his inventions.
• Newton died on 20-3-1727 in London.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 5 Temperature and Its Measurement to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 5 Temperature and Its Measurement

→ Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of an object.

→ Heat is a form of energy.

→ The energy which makes an object appear hot or cold is called heat.

→ If we use the electrical heater to heat water electrical energy is converted to heat.

→ In solar heaters, solar energy is converted to heat.

→ All thermometers are based on the fact that matter expands on heating.

→ Mercury is a good conductor of heat.

→ Mercury is available in a pure state.

→ The first thermometer was invented by Galileo in 1593 A.D.

→ The normal temperature of the human body is 37 °C (98.6 °F)

→ The average body temperature of a large number of healthy persons is known as normal temperature.

→ Thermister thermometer is used to measure the temperature for infants and children.

→ Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of an object.

→ Heat flows from an object at a high temperature to another at a lower temperature.

→ Mercury and alcohol are used as thermometer liquids in thermometer.

→ Doctors use a clinical thermometer to measure the human body temperature.

→ A Laboratory thermometer is used to measure the temperature of objects.

→ Heat energy: A form of energy that is transferred by a difference in temperature
→ Temperature: The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment.

→ Thermometer: An instrument for measuring temperature, especially one having a graduated glass tube with a bulb containing a liquid, typically mercury or coloured alcohol, that expands and rises in the tube as the temperature increases.

→ Fahrenheit scale: A temperature scale that defines the freezing point of water as 32 degrees and the boiling point of water a 212 degrees.

→ Celsius scale: A scale of temperature in which 0° represents the melting point of ice and 100 represents the boiling point of water.

→ Clinical thermometer: A thermometer is used to measure body temperature, especially a small glass thermometer designed with a narrowing above the bulb so that the mercury column stays in position when the instrument is removed from the body.

→ Expansion: An increase in the volume of a substance while its mass remains the same. Expansion ¡s usually due to heating. When substances are heated, the molecular bonds between their particles are weakened, and the particles move faster, causing the substance to expand.

→ Kink: A tight curl, twist, or bend in a length of thin material, as one caused by the tensing of a looped section of wire.

→ Jerk: To give a sudden quick thrust, push, pull, or twist to.

→ Lukewarm: Minimum level of temperature.

→ Vessel: A hollow utensil, such as a cup, vase, or pitcher used as a container, especially for liquids

→ Solar heater: A heater that makes direct use of solar energy.

→ Solar energy: The radiant energy emitted by the Sun Energy is derived from the Sun’s radiation. Passive solar energy can be exploited through architectural design, by positioning windows to allow sunlight to enter and help heat a space. Active solar energy involves the conversion of sunlight to electrical energy, especially in solar (photovoltaic).

→ Radiant energy: Energy transferred by radiation, especially by an electromagnetic wave.

→ In Libya (Africa) on a particular day in the year 1922, ¡t became so hot that the temperature of air even in shade was a high as 58°C. At some places (Rentachirnala of Guntur district) in Andhra Pradesh, the maximum temperature of air sometimes reaches 48°C and more. When it is so hot we feel extremely uncomfortable as the normal temperature of the human body is 37°C. The lowest temperature In the world has been measured ¡n Antarctica where it once went down to about -89°C.

The minus sign is used for temperature which s less than 0°C. Water freezes at 0°C, just think how cold-89°C must be. In winter when the atmospheric temperature around us becomes 15°C – 20°C we begin to feel cold.

→ C V. Raman:
C V. Raman is Chandra Sekhar Venkata Raman. He was the first Indian Scientist to become Sir C V Raman. He won the Nobel Prize iii Physics in 1930. His work is on the scattering of light’ His discovery ‘effect of light rays named after him as ‘Ruinan effect’. Ruman was born on 7th November 1888 in Thiruchunapalli TamilNadu. During a sea-voyage in 1921, Raman became anxious to know; why sea-water, sky and glaciers were blue in colour. He finally brought forth the reason for the blue colour of the sky, sea-water and glaciers. He announced the Raman effect on February 28 and so that day is observed as the National Science Day. This Nobel scientist died on 20th November 1970.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 3 Animal Fibre to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 3 Animal Fibre

→ The making of silk or silk fabrics is a very interesting story.

→ Eggs of silk moth are called ‘Seeds’.

→ Silkmoth is like a butterfly.

→ People buy these silk moths to produce eggs. These centres are called Grinages’.

→ Silkworms eat mulberry leaves day and night.

→ Caterpillar weaves a net to hold itself.

→ Caterpillar moves its moth from side to side and secrets fibre like substance.

→ The cocoons have to be stifled to kill the larva inside as otherwise, it will cut its way out after growing into a moth and spoil the cocoon.

→ Caterpillar of silkworm spins fibre which is mainly made up of two types of protein (Sirisine and fibroin) and is very strong.

→ The thread you get from the average cocoon ranges from about 1,000 to 3,000 feet.

→ The hair of the camel that lives in Rajasthan is not the same as the Angora goat that lives in Kashmir.

→ Woollen fibres are bleached and then dyed with different colours.

→ By making knots with loops and rings of long threads of yarn, woollen fabrics are knitted.

→ Wool is a poor conductor of heat.

→ Animal fibres are natural fibres.

→ Animal fibre is a protein while plant fibre is a carbohydrate.

→ The rearing of silkworms for obtaining silk is called sericulture.

→ Egg, Larva, Pupa, Adult moths are the stages in the life cycle of silkworms.

→ The separation of silk fibre from the cocoon is called reeling.

→ Hair of animals like goats, sheep, camels etc., are used to obtain woollen fibre.

→ Angora goat hair is soft to spin different types of fabrics like shawls and sweaters.

→ Removing hair or fleece from the skin of sheep is called shearing.

→ Cleaning of fleece with a stream of water is called scouring.

→ Knitting is the process of making fabric by using knitting needles to form interlocking loops and rings of woollen yarn.

→ Animal fibre: A product made from animal material

→ Silkworm: Stocky creamy-white Asiatic moth found almost entirely under human care; the source of most of the silk commerce

→ Cocoon: A protective case of silk or similar fibrous material spun by the larvae of moths and other insects that serves as a covering for their pupal stage.

→ Mulberry: Any of several deciduous trees of the genus Moms, having unisexual flowers in drooping catkins and edible multiple fruits.

→ Sericulture: Raising silkworms in order to obtain raw silk

→ Bombyx mon: Chinese silkworm moth

→ Reeling: Obtaining silk from the cocoon

→ Fleece: The coat of wool of a sheep or similar animal.

→ Shearing: Removing by cutting off or clipping

→ Scouring: To remove dirt or grease from (cloth or fibres) by means of a detergent.

→ Knitting: Needlework created by interlacing yarn in a series of connected loops using straight eyeless needles or by machine.

→ Bleaching: To remove the colour from, as by means of chemical agents or sunlight.

→ WeavIng: To construct by interlacing or interweaving strips or strands of material.

→ Dyeing: To colour (a material), especially by soaking ¡n a colouring solution.

→ Warp: To arrange (strands of yarn or thread) so that they run lengthwise in weaving.

→ Woof: The threads that run crosswise in a woven fabric, at right angles to the warp threads.

→ Apart from Mulberry, Tasar silk (Desali Pattu) is produced in our State. Some species of silk moths that lay eggs on the Terminalia oak plantation produce Tasar silk. Mostly tribal people rear this kind of cocoons. This silk plantation is mainly concentrated in Ananthapuram, East Godavari and Visakhapatnam and coastal regions of A.P.

→ The thread you get from the average cocoon ranges from about 1,000 to 3,000 feet, and about 2,000 to 3,000 cocoons are required to make 500 gm of silk. That is about 50,00,000 feet or more than 1,000 miles! That’s not all. People involved in the process suffer from skin as well as respiratory problems due to the continuous handling of the silkworm and the silk fibres.

→ Wool is a poor conductor of heat. Air trapped in between the woollen fibres and our body prevents the flow of heat from our body to our surroundings. So we feel hot and are protected from cold. Give reasons. The woollen cloth also helps to douse the fire.

→ William Harvey:

• Dr William Harvey was regarded as a medical detective for the mystery that he solved viz ‘How does blood move in the human body.
• He was responsible to lay the foundation ‘of Modern Physiology.
• Harvey was born at Folkstone on ¡st April 1578.
• Harvey observed that the heart in a living béing moves up and down, functions as a pump, arteries pulsate synchronously with /he heartbeat.
• At the age of 68, he died. An oration on his name was instituted. The Harvey oration is still delivered annually.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 2 Acids and Bases to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 2 Acids and Bases

→ Fruits, vegetables and other food substances have different tastes.

→ Those substances that indicate a change in colour when some substances are added to them are known as indicators.

→ The substances which are soapy to touch are basic in nature.

→ Methyl orange gives a red colour with acids and yellow colour with bases.

→ Phenolphthalein remains colourless in acidic solution while it turns pink in basic solution.

→ Neutral solutions have no effect on Indicators.

→ When acids and bases are mixed in definite proportions they give a neutral solution. Salts that change blue litmus to red are acidic salts.

→ Salts that change red litmus to blue are basic salts.

→ The indicator helps us to find whether the solution is acidic or basic or neutral.

→ Red litmus paper, blue litmus paper, phenolphthalein, methyl orange, Hibiscus, turmeric and rose paper are natural indicators.

→ The substances that turn blue litmus to red are acidic in nature.

→ The substances that are soapy to touch and turn red litmus to blue are basic in nature. Acid rains are the combination of Carbonic acid, Sulphuric acid and Nitric acid with rainwater.

→ All substances whose solutions are neutral are not salts. For eg., sugar or starches give neutral solutions but they are not salts.

→ In the process of Neutralization, both the acidic and basic qualities are destroyed.

→ Salts need not always be neutral. They can also be acidic or basic.

→ Indicator: A substance used in titrations to indicate the completion of a chemical reaction, usually by a change of colour a substance, such as litmus, that indicates the presence of an acid or alkali.

→ Acid: A compound usually having a sour taste.

→ Base: A compound usually having a bitter taste.

→ Red litmus: Litmus, an organic dye usually used in the laboratory as an indicator of acidity or alkalinity Naturally pink in colour, it turns blue in alkali solution.

→ Blue litmus: Litmus, an organic dye usually used in the laboratory as an indicator of acidity or alkalinity. Naturally pink in colour, it turns blue in alkali solution.

→ Acidic substances: The substances that contain different acids and the ability to turn blue litmus red. Ex: lemon – citric acid, banana – ascorbic acid etc.

→ Basic substances: The substances which are soapy to touch are basic in nature. Ex: soap, glass cleaner, etc.

→ Neutral substance: A neutral substance is a material that exhibits neither Acid nor a Base property and does not change the colour of litmus paper.

→ Salts: A chemical compound formed by replacing all or part of the hydrogen ions of an acid with metal ions or electropositive radicals.

→ Neutralization: A reaction between an acid and a base that yields salt and water.

→ Acid rain: Rain that contains a high concentration of pollutants, chiefly sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, released into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal or oil.

→ Caustic soda: A strongly alkaline caustic soda used in manufacturing soap and paper and aluminium and various sodium compounds.

→ Vinegar: A sour-tasting liquid consisting of impure dilute acetic acid, made by oxidation of the ethyl alcohol in beer, wine, or cider, It is used as a condiment or preservative.

→ Fire extinguisher: A portable apparatus containing chemicals that can be discharged in a rapid stream to extinguish a small fire.

→ Why are the inner sides of vessels made up of brass and copper coated?
When some substances are kept in a copper container for a long time then a blue-green layer is formed in the inner walls of the container. Copper reacts with the acids present in the substances and forms a blue-green compound. To avoid this reaction the inner wálls of these vessels are coated with Tin.

→ Robert Koch: Robert Koch was born on 11th December 1843 in Kaushal, a village in the mountainous terrain of the Harz in the state of Hannover in Germany. His boyhood days were spent in an atmosphere of poverty, struggle and hope – all mingled in mixed proportions, yet with a happy turnover, on the overall.

At the age of 23, Koch qualified for M.D., the Laudable qualification heralding the future genius in him. Koch formulated the symptoms and preventive measures of tuberculosis and cholera. Koch is respected all over the world. He was the recipient of the Nobel prize for Medicine in 1905. The title ‘Excellenz’ was awarded to him. outstanding contribution- in tuberculosis.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 1 Food Components to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 1 Food Components

→ We eat different types of food items.

→ Food supplies the energy we need to do many tasks in our day to day activities.

→ Our food consists of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. Besides these water and fibres are also present.

→ We require different quantities of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats according to the age and needs of individuals.

→ There are some components of food that are necessary for our body called roughages or dietary fibres.

→ Water is also an essential component needed by our body.

→ Scientists have found out that a balanced diet need not necessarily be costly.

→ Lavoisier (1743- 1793) paved new ways for nutrition research.

→ Food contains some components like Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats, Vitamins and Minerals.

→ Fibres are also a component of food that is present in different kinds of fruits and vegetables.

→ All food items contain all the components of food. The amount of each component varies from one type of food to another.

→ Roughages or Dietary fibres clean our food canal and prevent constipation.

→ We must drink enough water so that our body functions properly.

→ The food that contains all the nutrients like Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats, Vitamins and Minerals in proper proportions is called Balanced Diet.

→ Everyone requires a Balanced Diet.

→ Carbohydrates: Compound made from plants containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

→ Fibres: A long fine continuous thread or filament

→ Balanced diet: A diet that contains adequate amounts of all the necessary nutrients required for healthy growth and activity.

→ ProteIns: Nutritious substances contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulfur and are composed of one or more chains of amino acids.

→ Fats: Organic compounds constituting the esters of glycerol and fatty acids and their associated organic groups.

→ ConstipatIon: Irregular and infrequent or difficult evacuation of the bowels; can be a symptom of intestinal obstruction or diverticulitis

→ Vitamins: Organic substances essential in minute amounts for normal growth and activity of the body and obtained naturally from plant and animal foods.

→ Minerals: Natural inorganic substances like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium etc.,

→ Food: Nutritious substance that living forms eats or drinks, or absorbs, in order to maintain life and growth

→ Roughages: A kind of carbohydrate that our body helps to digest

→ Pesticide: A chemical used for killing pests, especially insects and rodents

→ Cereals: A grass such as wheat, oats, or corn, the starchy grains of which are used as food.

→ Pulses: The edible seeds of certain pod-bearing plants, such as peas and beans.

→ Scurvy: A disease caused by deficiency of vitamin C, characterized by spongy and bleeding gums, bleeding under the skin, and extreme weakness.

→ Nutrition: The process by which a living organism prepares food and uses it for growth and for the replacement of tissues.

→ Salad: A dish of raw leafy green vegetables with pieces of other raw or cooked vegetables, fruit, cheese, or other ingredients and served with a dressing.

→ Junk food: ‘Food that tastes good but is high in calories having little nutritional value. Ex: chips, lays, etc.

→ Dry fruits like dates, plums, raisins, cashew nuts, pistachios, etc. also keep us healthy.

→ Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858 – 1937):
An Ardent Aficionado of Flora:
About eighty years ago u great Indian scientists astonished the World with a number of startling discoveries. By one of these, he paved the way for modern wireless telegraphy and radio broadcasting. By another, he proved that plants are living organisms. He was J. C Bose.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 5 Diversity in Living Organism to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 5 Diversity in Living Organism

→ Diversity is the symbol of nature.

→ Diverse organisms are grouped based on the similarities and differences found among them.

→ The presence of differences between organisms of the same species is called variation.

→ Plants those having two seed leaves are dicotyledons while those having single seed leaves are monocotyledons.

→ Variation between different species is always greater than the variation within a species.

→ Variations form a basis for the selection of characters to group organisms.

→ No two organisms are identical in nature.

→ The way in which the organisms may have evolved is classification.

→ Classification is the systematic study of organisms present in nature with respect to their evolution.

→ Classification helps us in exploring the diversity of life forms.

→ Classification helps to study the organisms in a proper and systematic manner.

→ Classification helps in understanding the relationship among the organisms and their interdependence.

→ Classification gives us an idea of evolution.

→ Classification helps to make comparisons in an easier way.

→ Charles Darwin proposed a theory known as Natural selection in 1859 and wrote a book on evolution known as ‘Origin of Species.’

→ In the first and second centuries AD, Charaka and Sushruthad classified plants on the basis of their medical importance.

→ Parasar in his book ‘Vrikshayurveda’ classified several land plants on the basis of the structure of flowers.

→ In 1758, Carl Von Linnaeus classified living organisms into Animalia and Plantae.

→ The major characteristics considered for the classifying all organisms into five major kingdoms by Whittaker are

1. Whether they are made of prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells.
2. Whether the ceils are living singly and organized into multicellular and thus complex organisms.
3. Whether the ceils have a cell wall and whether they prepare their own food

→ According to Whittaker, all living organisms are classified into five kingdoms namely

1. Monera
2. Porifera
3. Fungi
4. Plantae
5. Animalia.

→ All cells are similar and are originated from a single ancestor ceil called Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA).

→ Recently Cavalier-Smith (1998) classified the organisms into six kingdoms namely Bacteria, Protozoa, Chromista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia.

→ Plants are divided into five groups: Thailophytes, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.

→ Animals are divided into ten groups: Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata, Protochordata, and Vertebrate.

→ Monera kingdom includes unicellular prokaryotes. Eg: Bacteria, Anabaena.

→ Protista includes unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes. They are autotrophic or heterotrophic organisms. Eg: Paramoecium, Algae, Diatoms.

→ Fungi include uni or multicellular organisms which reproduce by spores.
Eg: Yeast, Mushroom, Lichens, etc.

→ The Porifera group animals have pores or holes in the body. They form a canal system in the body. Eg: Sycon, Spongilla.

→ The coelenterate animals are diploblastic and have a body cavity or coelom. Eg: Hydra, Jellyfish.

→ In Platyhelminthes animals, the body is flat, bilaterally symmetrical, and are triploblastic. Eg: Tapeworms, Liver flukes.

→ In nematodes, the body is round bilaterally symmetrical triploblastic and pseudocoelomates Eg: Wucheraria Bancroft, Ascaris.

→ Annelids’ body is bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic segmented, and has a true body cavity. Eg: Earthworm, Leech, Nereis.

→ Arthropods are bilaterally symmetrical, segmented, and have jointed legs.
Eg: Prawn, Housefly, Cockroach.

→ In Molluscs, the body is bilaterally symmetrical, Coelomic cavity is reduced and little segmented Body differentiation starts. Eg: Octopus, Pila, Unio, etc.

→ Echinoderm animals are triploblastic, Coelomate, and Spiny skinned animals.
Eg: Echinos (Sea urchin), Antedon, Asterias (Starfish).

→ Protochordate is bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic coelomate animals. Notochord may not present at all stages in their life. Eg: Balanoglossus, Amphioxus.

→ Vertebrates have a true vertebral column and internal skeleton.

→ The naming of organisms with distinctive scientific names is called nomenclature.

→ The binomial nomenclature is made up of two words a generic name and a specific name and was introduced by Carl Linneaus.

→ Diversity: Variety of people or things that are very different from each other.

→ Biodiversity: Variety of life forms found in a particular region.

→ Variation: Difference in structure or function, which is shown in individuals of the same species.

→ Cotyledon: The first leaf that is grown from seed.

→ Monocotyledons: Plants having single cotyledons.

→ Dicotyledons: Plants having two cotyledons.

→ Lineage: People of the family who lived in the past; the way ¡n which members of a family are descended from other members.

→ Classification: It ¡s the systematic study of organisms present in nature with respect to their evolution.

→ Designation: Formally choose for a particular purpose.

→ Thermophiles: Prokaryotes that live in hot springs and other places where the temperatures were near or even above the boiling points of water.

→ Halophiles: Prokaryotes that live in places of very high salt concentration.

→ Ancestor cell: A cell that lived ¡n the past from which a modern cell has developed.

→ Interbreed: To produce young ones from parents of different breeds or groups.

→ Solitary: Only one.

→ Cryptogams: Non-flowering and non-seed bearing plants.

→ Phanerogams: Flowering and seed-bearing plants.

→ Porifera: Organisms with holes.

→ Bilaterally symmetrical: The left and right halves of the body have the same design.

→ Triploblastic: Different tissues are formed from three layers of cells.

→ Coelom: Space present inside the body.

→ Pseudocolor: False cavity present inside the body of an organism.

→ Arthropod: Jointed legs.

→ Protochordate: Chordates are developed from these animals. They are marine animals.

→ Notochord: A cylindrical chord/string-like structure which ¡s along mid-dorsal line ¡n all chordates.

→ Cold-blooded animals: These animals can change their body temperature according to their surroundings.

→ Hippocampus: Known as a sea horse. Fish are like animals in which males carry babies as our mothers.

→ Endangered: A type of animal or plant that may soon no longer exist. e.g.: Whale.

→ Nomenclature: Naming of organisms with a distinctive scientific name.

→ Flora: AIl plant life ¡n a region.

→ Fauna: All animal life in a region.

→ Binomial nomenclature: The binomial nomenclature is made up of two words a generic name and a specific name.

→ Evolution: Change gradually.
The scientific idea that plants and animals developed gradually from a simple to more complicated forms.

→ Animal kingdom: One of the five major groups into which all living things are organized by Whittaker. The biggest stage in classification.

→ Domain: An area of activity, interest, or knowledge. The organization of organisms starts here formed by the union of one or two parts.

→ Phylum: One of the major groups into which the animal kingdom is divided.

→ Class: A term used for describing a collection of similar orders.

→ Order: A collection of similar families.

→ Family: Principal sub-division of an order of animals/plants.

→ Genus: Collection of similar species.

→ Species: A group of plants or animals having common characteristics that are similar enough to interbreed and perpetuate.

→ There are various hypotheses as to the origin of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Because all cells are similar in nature, it is generally thought that all cells came from a common ancestor cell termed the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA). These LUCA eventually evolved into three different cell types, each representing a domain. The three domains are the Archaea, the Bacteria, and the Eukarya (a classification as suggested by Woese).

→ Archaea and bacteria are prokaryotic cells that are they do not have a membrane-bound nucleus, the nuclear material is presently dispersed in the cytoplasm.

→ The cell walls of bacteria unlike the archaea contain fat-like chemical peptidoglycan.

→ Eukarya have eukaryotic cells or cells having a membrane-bound nucleus.

→ Fishes are cold-blooded animals. They can change their body temperature according to their surroundings. Most of the fishes are oviparous but some like sharks give birth to young ones.

→ Father of Taxonomy: Carl Von Linnaeus

• Carl Von Linnaeus was born in Sweden and was a doctor by profession.
• While serving as a personal Physician of a wealthy gov¬ernment official Linnaeus studied the diversity of plants in his employers garden.
• Linnaeus published a book ‘Systema Naturae’ from which all fundamental taxonomical researches have taken off.
• In 1758 Carl Von Linnaeus proposed a system that was dominated classification for centuries.
• Linnaeus gave each organism two names denoting genus and species.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 4 Movement of Materials Across the Cell Membrane to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 4 Movement of Materials Across the Cell Membrane

→ Cell performs different functions.

→ Different types of substances like glucose, water, and oxygen are required by the cell to perform functions.

→ Saturated solutions do not dissolve substances further.

→ The cells in the outer layer of Kishmish permit water to pass through.

→ In Greek ‘Osmos’ means pushing.

→ The movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane in a solution from a low high concentration till the concentration on both sides becomes equal is called ‘Osmosis’.

→ Permeability means allowing substances into the cell through a semipermeable membrane.

→ The plasma membrane is selectively permeable allows entry of certain substances to pass through it

→ The plasma membrane is semipermeable to solvent but prevents the passage of solutes.

→ The process in which water molecules leave the cell is called ‘Exosmosis’.

→ The process in which water molecules enter the cell is called ‘Endosmosis’.

→ Freddie Mercury and David Bowie removed salt from seawater by using a semipermeable membrane by a process called desalination.

→ Reverse osmosis helps in removing salt from seawater.

→ The process by which some materials when kept in a medium like air and water spread equally throughout, is called diffusion.

→ Air freshness, Agarbathi, mosquito repellants work on the principle of diffusion.

→ Thomas Graham measured the rate of diffusion of gases and also studied the diffusion of substances in solutions.

→ Osmosis does not take place in dead cells.

→ Solute: Dissolved substance in a solution.

→ Solvent: A fluid substance that dissolves solid substances.

→ Selectively permeable: Allows entry of certain substances only.

→ Endocytosis: Flexibility of the cell membrane to engulf food and other substances from the external environment. E.g.: Amoeba.

→ Osmosis: The movement of water molecules towards concentrated solutions.

→ Plasmodesmata: The strands of cytoplasm passing through cell walls and connecting the protoplasts of adjacent cells.

→ Permeability: The extent to which molecules of a given kind can pass through a membrane.

→ Semipermeable: Only certain materials are allowed to enter the cell.

→ Circumference: A line that goes around a circle or any other curved shape, the length of this line.

→ Exosmosis: The process in which water molecules leave the cell.

→ Endosmosis: The process in which water molecules enter the cell.

→ Reverse Osmosis: A process used to remove salts from the water.

→ Diffusion: Some materials when kept ¡n a medium like air and water spread equally ¡n that medium.

→ Saturated solution: It is a solution in which solute further can not dissolve.

→ Three fourth of the earth is covered with oceans. Though plenty of water is there, we cannot use it, since it is salty. If we can remove salts from it we can use it. Freddie Mercury and David Bowie removed salt from seawater by using a semi-permeable membrane by a process called desalination. When heavy pressure is applied to a salt solution, which is separated from freshwater with a semi-permeable membrane, the water moves from the salt solution into freshwater leaving the salt behind. This process is known as reverse osmosis. Nowadays domestically used reverse osmosis machines are available in the market, which filters saltwater through three membranes.

→ Thomas Graham, the Scottish physical chemist, worked on the diffusion of gases. Graham measured the rate of diffusion of gases and also studied the diffusion of substances in solutions. He had inferred that a more soluble substance in a medium diffuse faster than a less soluble substance. This is popularly known as ‘Graham’s law’.

→ Thomas Graham:

• Thomas Graham a Scottish physical chemist, worked on the diffusion of gases.
• He also studied the diffusion of substances in solutions.
• Thomas Graham inferred that a more soluble substance in a medium diffuse faster than a less soluble substance.
• This is popularly known as Graham‘s law.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 3 Animal Tissues to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 3 Animal Tissues

→ Tissue is a group of cells similar in structure and functions.

→ In animals, 4 types of tissues are there.
They are:

1. Epithelial,
2. Connective,
3. Muscular,
4. Nerve.

→Depending on shape and function, epithelial tissue is classified as squamous, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated, and glandular.

→ Epithelial tissues are present in the skin, lining of the mouth, lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli, and kidney tubules.

→ Squamous epithelium found, where transportation of substances selectively occurs through a permeable membrane.

→ Nails, hair, scales of fishes and reptiles, feathers of birds are modified epithelial cells.

→ Connective tissue connects organs and muscles.

→ The different types of connective tissues in our body include areolar tissue, adipose tissue, bone, tendon, ligament, cartilage, and blood

→ The blood consists of plasma, RBC, WBC, and platelets.

→ Osteocytes secrete salts present in the bone marrow.

→ Cartilage is found in the joints of bones, the tip of ribs, the tip of the nose, external ears, and the trachea.

→ Embryos of several vertebrates have only cartilage.

→ Ligaments and tendons are made of collagen.

→ Hemoglobin gives the red color to the blood, present in RBC.

→ The cockroach has white blood and the snail has blue colored blood

→ Heparin helps to prevent blood clotting in blood vessels.

→ RBC is also called erythrocytes.

→ WBC is also called leucocytes.

→ Dead WBC comes out of the wound as pus.

→ Four types of blood groups are found in human beings by Carl Land Steiner.

→ The different types of connective tissues in our body include areolar tissue, adipose tissue, bone, tendon, ligament, cartilage, and blood.

→ Striated, unstriated, and cardiac are three types of muscle tissues.

→ Nervous tissue is made of neurons that receive and conduct impulses.

→ Tissue: A group of cells similar in structure and function.

→ Epithelial tissue: Tissue present inside or outside of the animal body.

→ Connective tissue: Connects organs and muscles.

→ Insulator: Detachment from other objects, separatec1 isolated

→ Bone marrow: central hollow portion of the bone.

→ Bone: A hard one, made of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate.

→ Cartilage: One type of bone, but not hard

→ Muscle tissue: Responsible for movements in the body.

→ Nerve tissue: A specialized tissue that responds to internal and external stimuli.

→ Ranvier nodes: Gas or nodes present at regular intervals on myelin sheath are known as Ranvier nodes.

→ Sometimes a portion of epithelial tissue folds Inward and formed a multi-cellular gland. Hence It Is called the granular epithelium.

→ Bone is made of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. These salts are secreted by cells called osteocytes. These cells are present in the central hollow portion of the hone called bone marrow.

→ Marcello Malpighi (1628 – 1694):

• Marcello Malpighi was born at Crevalcuore near Bologno, Italy in 1628. In 1649 he began his professional studies at the University of Bologna and in 1653 graduated in Philosophy and Medicine.
• He is regarded with justification as the founding father of animal histology and a number of histological structures still bear his name: Malpighian capsules in the kidney, the malpighian layer in the skin, malpighian tubules in the excretory system of insects, man, etc

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 2 Plant Tissues to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 2 Plant Tissues

→ Tissue is a group of cells similar in structure and performing similar functions.

→ Tissues that bring about overall growth and repair are called Meristematic Tissues.

→ Tissues that form outer coverings are called Dermal tissues.

→ Tissues that form the bulk of the plant body, helping in packing other tissues are called Ground tissues.

→ Tissues that help in the transport of materials are called Vascular tissues.

→ Meristematic tissue is of three types.

1. Apical Meristem
2. Lateral Meristem
3. Intercalary Meristem.

→ The epidermis, Mesodermis, and Endodermis are formed from dermal tissues.

→ The dermal layer protects the plant from loss of water, mechanical damage, and diseases

→ Gum is secreted from the dermal layer.

→ Ground tissue is divided into three types.

1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
3. Sclerenchyma.

→ Parenchyma containing chloroplasts is chlorenchyma, with air cavities is Aerenchyma and that stores food is storage tissue.

→ The cells of the parenchyma are soft, thin-walled, and loosely packed

→ Collenchyma tissues have thicker walled large cells compared to the parenchyma.

→ In sclerenchyma, the cells are thick-walled and compactly arranged with nearly no intercellular spaces between them.

→ Nehemiah Grew give the term parenchyma for the pithy part

→ Vascular tissues are involved in transportation.

→ Vascular tissues are the xylem and phloem.

→ Xylem conducts water and mineral salts from the root, while phloem transports food I materials from leaves to the growing region.

→ Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, fibers, and xylem parenchyma.

→ Phloem consists of sieve cells and sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibers, and phloem parenchyma.

→ Xylem carries water up to 200ft in Eucalyptus and up to 330ft in Redwood trees.

→ Tissue: A group of cells similar in structure and performing similar functions.

→ Meristematic tissue: Dividing tissue present in growing regions of plants.

→ Apical Meristem: Present at the growing tip that brings about growth in length.

→ Lateral Meristem: Present around the edges in a lateral manner and rise the growth in diameter of the stem and root.

→ Intercalary Meristem: Meristem present at the branches, leaf, or flower stalk grows.

→ Dermal tissue: A single layer of tissues showing variations in the types of cells gives protection to the plant.

→ Epidermis: Outermost layer ¡n stem, root, and leaf

→ Bark: The layers formed above the epidermis in big trees.

→ Ground tissue: Forms the Bulk of the plant body.
e.g.: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.

→ Parenchyma: Cells of this tissue are soft thin-walled and loosely packed.

→ Collenchyma: It has thicker walled, longer cells compared to the parenchyma.

→ Sclerenchyma: Cells are thick-walled, compactly arranged without intercellular spaces.

→ Vascular tissue: Helps in the transport of materials in plants.

→ Xylem: Helps in the transport of water and minerals.

→ Phloem: Helps in the transport of food material from leaves to other growing regions in plants.

→ Vascular bundles: Stands for one of a number of strands of primary vascular tissue having both xylem and phloem.

→ Trachieds : It is a xylem element. It conducts water and gives mechanical strength. A long narrow pipe-like, non-living cell with narrow students and thick walls.

→ Vessels: Non-living element of the xylem conducts water and gives mechanical support to the plant.

→ Arrangement Of The Cells in Tips:


→ Plants have the ability to store certain substances that are either their excretory products of accumulated food or some secret substances in different ways. Gum is secreted from the dermal layer of a gum tree.

→ Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) was a practicing physician and worked as the secretary of the Royal Society, London. He began his work on the study of the internal structure of the plants in the year 1664.

→ Grew’s fundamental inference was “Every plant organ consists of two types of organic parts. One is pithy and other is ligneous part”. Grew gave the term “parenchyma” for the pithy part. Grew initiated the study of tissues (Histology in plant bodies and published his work in the book ‘Anatomy of PLants’ in the year 1682.

→ Marie Francous Xavier Bichat (1771 – 1802):

• Marie Francois Xavier Bichat (1771-1802) was the first person to look beyond the recognizable organ system and suggest that each part of the body was composed of various kinds of tissues.
• In addition, he suggested that disease acted upon these tissues in ways that could be seen and studied
• For these insights, Bichat is considered the father of Histology.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 1 Cell its Structure and Functions to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 1 Cell its Structure and Functions

→ We can see the cell wall cytoplasm, nucleus, chloroplast and mitochondria with \ a compound microscope.

→ Under the electron microscope, a few other structures became visible.

→ Chloroplasts occur only in the ceils of green plant parts like the leaf and tender I stem.

→ The fundamental organizational unit of life is the cell.

→ Cells are enclosed by a plasma membrane composed of lipids and proteins.

→ A plasma membrane is a selectively permeable membrane.

→ The plasma membrane defines the shape and size of the cell and protects from the exter¬nal environment

→ The cell wall is a tough, flexible porous layer.

→ During growth and development, the cell wall continuously exchanges information with other cells.

→ The plant cells can withstand much greater changes in surroundings medium than animal cells.

→ In-plant cells, a cell wall composed of cellulose is located outside the cell membrane. % Nucleus was named by Robert Brown in 1831.

→ The nucleus is the most important organelle of the cell

→ Schleiden called it the cytoblast

→ The nucleus regulates and controls all the functions and determines the characteris¬tics of the organism.

→ It is the bearer of genetic information and is closely involved in cell division.

→ Eucaryotic cells have a nucleus except for Red blood cells, phloem sieve tubes in plants.

→ The nuclear membrane separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.

→ On the basis of the presence of nuclear membrane, cells are categorized into two types, i.e., Prokaryotic and Eucaryotic cells.

→ Prokaryotic cells nuclear membrane is absent e.g.: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria.

→ The cytoplasm is the fluid content, contains cell organelles.

→ In prokaryotes, membrane-bound cell organelles are also absent

→ Endoplasmic Reticulum transports the substances.

→ Two types:

1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

→ RER is the site of protein manufacture.

→ SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules and lipids.

→ Invertebrate liver cells, SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.

→ Camillo Golgi had observed Golgi body or Golgi apparatus in 1898.

→ It is made up of several membranes.

→ Its function is to package various substances.

→ The number of Golgi bodies is large in those cells that secrete hormones and enzymes.

→ Lysosomes contained destructive enzymes.

→ Lysosomes are also known as the suicidal bags of the cell « Mitochondria are also known as the powerhouse of the cell

→ They are small, spherical or cylindrical in shape and 150 times smaller than the nucleus.

→ It is made of a double-membrane wall

→ The inner wall protrudes and forms structures called cristae.

→ Plastids are of two types:

1. Chromoplasts (coloured)
2. Leucoplasts (colourless)

→ In Algae plastids are found as ladders, stars, spirals or reticulate.

→ Chloroplasts trap the energy of sunlight and transform it into chemical energy in photosynthesis.

→ The large empty spaces visible in the cells are vacuoles.

→ They are fluid-filled sacs i.e., storage sacs.

→ In mature plant cells, they might occupy almost the entire cell space.

→ All living beings are made of cells.

→ Matthias, Jakob Schleiden and Theodar Schwann together form cell theory.

→ Rudolf Carl Virchow (1855) first explained that new cells can be formed from the preexisting cells.

→ All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cell

→ All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

→ Plasma membrane: The outermost layer of the cell that separates cytoplasm from the external environment.

→ Selectively permeable: Plasma membrane allows certain substances to pass membrane through it hence membrane is called a selectively permeable membrane.

→ Cell wall: It is an extra layer outside the cell membrane in plant cells.

→ Prokaryotic cell: Cell that does not have a nuclear membrane-bound nuclear material or cell without a distinct nucleus.

→ Eukaryotic cell: Cell contains a membrane-bound nuclear material or cell with a distinct nucleus.

→ Chromo plants: These are the coloured plastids present ¡n only in plant cells.

→ Chlora plants: Chloroplasts are a type of plastids in green colour. They are of different shapes disc, oval, etc.

→ Leucoplasts: These are colourless plastids present only ¡n plant cells.

→ Cisternae: Enclosed spaces ¡n the cytoplasm of a cell, which gets separated from the ground substance by the cytoplasmic membrane.

→ Vesicles: Used for a cavity within the cytoplasm which is surrounded by a membrane.

→ Cristae: These are the folds of the inner membrane of mitochondria

→ Matrix: It is the space between cristae.

→ Unicellular: Organism made of a single cell.

→ Multicellular organism: Organism made up of many cells.

→ Cytoplasm: Used for the part of protoplasm excluding the nucleus.

→ Nucleus: It ¡s the control room of a cell having genetic information.

→ Mitochondria: Cell powerhouse and is a seat for cellular respiration.

→ Proteins: They are synthesized from amino acids and form one of the main constituents of protoplasm.

→ Cytoplasm: Schlelden called the nucleus a cytoplasm he thought that new cells were created from the nucleus.

→ Suicide bags: Lysosomes cause the destruction of cells hence they are called suicide bags.

→ Cellular respiration: Respiration taking place within the cell.

→ Succulent plants: A xerophyte that stores water in the tissue giving it a fleshy appearance.

→ Unique: Being the only one of its kind.

→ Specific: Detailed or exact.

→ Flexible: Able to change to new conditions or situations.

→ Hormone: An organic substance produced in small amounts at one site ¡n an organism and transported to another site where it acts.

→ Enzyme: An organic catalyst that catalyses a reaction within a cell.

→ Certain organelles are present in large numbers in the cell for example cells involved in photosynthesis may contain around 50 to 200 chloroplasts.

→ The Father of Cell Biology:

• Albert Claude is considered to be the father of cell biology.
• He was awarded the Nobel Prize for physiology medicine in 1974.
• Born in Belgium, he moved to the United States and worked at the Rockefeller Institute to develop cell fractionation and ultracentrifugation.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 1 What is Science? to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 1 What is Science?

→ The word Science comes from the Latin word “Scientia”. It means knowledge.

→ Science is an organized study of knowledge that is based on experimentation.

→ Science is a tool for searching truths of nature.

→ Science is the way of exploring the world.

→ Questioning is the primary or fundamental step in scientific thinking.

→ Many scientists find their greatest joy in a previously unknown fact that explains something problem, previously not explained, or that overturns some previously accepted idea.

→ Scientists observe nature and its laws. Scientists follow a specific way for their innovations. The way they follow is called Scientific Method.

→ In the words of Karl Popper,” Science is a history of corrected mistakes”.

→ Primitive: Of early times, of long ago, original, first of kind.

→ Concerted: Planned or carried out by two or more people working together or with the same aim.

→ Phenomena: Facts, (or) circumstances that can be observed

→ Exploring: Searching (or) investigating, to make a careful investigation (or) study of something.

→ Territorial: To land and water owned or claimed by an entity especially a government.

→ Discrete: Completely separate and unconnected

→ Perspective: The art of picturing objects on a flat surface so as to give the appearance of distance or depth.

→ Investigation: Into something especially a detailed one that is undertaken officially (or) an examination (or) inquiry.

→ Hypothesis: A tentative explanation for a phenomenon used as a basis for further investigation.

→ Predict: To announce or tell before head, forecast, prophesy, foretell.

→ Variables: Apt to change, changeable, uncertain, that can be varied.

→ Vocabulary: A list of words usually in alphabetical order with their meaning (or) grammar, glossary (or) dictionary.

→ Narrative: A story or an account of a sequence of events in the order in which they happened, narration, account.

→ Expressive: Conveying something, significant.

→ Persuasive: Able to persuade; fitted to persuade, convincing

→ Informative: To communicate information or knowledge to somebody.

→ Interpreting: To establish or explain the meaning or significance of something.

→ Analysis: A detailed examination of the elements or structure of something.

→ There are over 1000 organisms living on our skin. In the chapter on microorganisms, you have already seen the pictures of some of them. The biotic community consists of bacteria, fungi, and small arthropods, etc. The abiotic factors are dead skin cells, water, salts, and oil of our sweat, air, etc.

→ Albert Einstein:
Albert Einstein was born in 1879 in Germany. He was famous for his Theory of Relativity. He proved that light travels in, the form of particles called “Photons”. In 1921 he was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics E = MC² is his famous equation. He died in 1955.

→ Isaac Newton:
Sir Isaac Newton was born on 25 – 12 – 1642 in Lincolnshire. He was the discoverer of Laws of Gravitation. He worked as a professor of Mathematics at the age of 27 in Trinity College. He invented many things which are helpful to mankind. He died on 20 -3 -1727 in London.