AP State Board Notes

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 1 Reading Maps of Different Kinds to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 1 Reading Maps of Different Kinds

→ We use symbols to show any physical object on the map.

→ If we are asked to show Delhi on the India map, we will mark a point (●) and label it as Delhi.

→ All physical objects are shown on the map with the help of a point, line, or area symbol.

→ Physical maps show the variety of landforms (plains, mountains, plateaus, etc.) and depict the height of places.

→ One way in which we can show heights on maps is through the use of color.

→ All heights on the land are calculated from the seal level.

→ Heights are shown in different shades of colors.

→ A contour is a line joining the places with equal heights.

→ The distance between two contour lines will depend upon the landscape.

→ If the land has a steep climb then the contour lines will be near to each other.

→ Maps help us to understand the nature of the terrain, where the mountains are, where the valleys are, etc.

→ Maps showing heights are very essential when roads or dams have to be constructed.

→ Over a period, scientists observed the high and low levels of the sea and they have come to one calculated average level, which is known as Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.)

→ Map: A map is a representation or a drawing of the total or a part of the earth’s surface drawn on the surface according to a scale.

→ Symbols: A sign, shape, or object which is used to represent something else.

→ Contour line: A contour is a line joining the places with equal heights.

→ Physical Maps: Maps showing natural features of the earth such as mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, and oceans.

→ Scale: Scale is the ratio between an actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on the map.

→ Plan: It is a drawing of a small area on a large scale.

→ Corrections: There are four cardinal points – North, South, East, and West.

→ Sketch: Imaginary or rough drawing drawn without scale.

→ Political Maps: Maps showing cities, towns and villages and different countries and states of the world with their boundaries.

→ Thematic Maps: Maps representing a particular topic or theme.

→ Escarpment: An area of high ground from an area of lower ground is called escarpment.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 16 Forest: Our Life to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 16 Forest: Our Life

→ Forests provide habitat to wildlife.

→ Forests help in causing rain.

→ They keep the surroundings clean.

→ Forests are an important source of timber, fuelwood, cane, resins, lac, oils, fruits, nuts, honey, etc.

→ Forests serve as the lungs of our earth.

→ Besides animals and plants, forests have been a home of people as well from ancient times.

→ People usually live in places in the forest where water is available.

→ We obtain various things and materials from the forest.

→ A forest is a good habitat for many plants and animals.

→ Forest helps in binding soil and protecting it from erosion.

→ People living in forests depend on its products for their livelihood.

→ Social forestry could help overcome deforestation.

→Destroying forests poses threat to the life of animals and plants living there as well as our own survival.

→ Orchard: A collection of fruit trees.

→ Plantation: Planting trees

→ Timber: Wood for buildings growing trees.

→ Firewood: Wood for fuel.

→ Soil erosion: Removal of topsoil by wind, water, or any other means.

→ Bunds: Constructs made to retain soil moisture

→ Deforestation: Cutting the forests

→ Tribe: A group of people, often of related families, who live together, sharing the same languages, culture, and history.

→ In 1730 AD about 350 Bishonois led by Amrita Devi sacrificed their lives to protect sacred green Kejari trees by hugging them when a king Wanted to cut those trees later this was led to the Chipko movement in history. Thereafter this practice has been carrying forwárd by people like Sunder Lai Bahuguna.

→ Savante Arrhenius:
Arrhenius was born in the year 1859. A Swedish chemist is well known for his theory of Acids and Bases. According to him, an acid is a substance that produces W ions in an aqueous solution where a base is a substance that produces OH^– ions in an aqueous solution. He died in 1927.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 15 Soil: Our Life to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 15 Soil: Our Life

→ The soil supports all plants, animals, and microorganisms.

→ Almost all the things in our surroundings directly or indirectly depend on soil.

→ Soil is also an essential component of our lives.

→ Most of our daily life activities are closely related to soil.

→ We use soil for various purposes.

→ Soil is good habitat.

→ We depend on soil for agriculture, construction purposes, making utensils, toys, etc Making pots by using soil is called pottery.

→ If the proportion of large-sized particles is more, we call the soil sandy.

→ If the proportion of fine particles is more the soil is clay.

→ If large and fine particles are present in equal proportions, the soil is called loam.

→ Water passing down through the soil particles is called percolation.

→ Soil is made up of distinct horizontal layers.

→ Soil is formed slowly as rock erodes into tiny pieces near the earth’s surface.

→ During heavy winds, we observe that the surface soil particles are carried away by air. It is very important to preserve the fertility of the soil.

→ Soil is a mixture of rock particles and humus.

→ Clay, loam, and sand are types of soil.

→ The amount of water that passes through gives us a percolation rate. It is highest in the sandy soil and least in the clayey soil.

→ The water holding capacity of a soil depends on soil type.

→ Clay and loam are suitable for growing in sandy loam or black soil.

→ The soil profile is a section through different layers of the soil.

→ Removal of topsoil by wind, water, or any other means is known as soil erosion.

→ Clay: a type of soil that can be easy to roll into a ball or ring and not cracked

→ Humus: rich dark organic material in the soil.

→ Loamy: a medium-textured soil containing a mixture of large and small mineral particles. (rich soil)

→ Sandy: very fine loose fragment of crushed rock.

→ Percolation: filtér, especially through small holes.

→ Water retention: water holding capacity.

→ Soil profile: a form of soil.

→ Soil fertility: production of vegetation in soil.

→ Soil erosion: removal of topsoil by wind, water, or any other means.

→ Crop rotatIon: a plant cultivated on a large scale for its produce.

→ Making pots by using soil is called a pottery. This is an ancient creative occupation. During the Harappan civilization, different varieties of designer pots and clay utensils were used. Pottery is a cottage industry in our country. Potters make pots by using clay soil on a pottery wheel.

→ Soil Formation: Soil is formed slowly as a rock (the parent material) erodes into tiny pieces near the Earth’s surface. Organic matter decays and mixes with inorganic material (rock particles, minerals, and water) to form soil. These days farmers test the soil in the field using soil technologies in order to grow suitable crops in the fields. Engineers also test the soil profile before constructing multi-storeyed buildings, bridges, and dams.

→ Soil Science:
Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the Earth. This includes Soil formation, Classification, and mapping, physical-chemical- biological and fertility properties of soil.

Sometimes terms that refer to branches of soil such as pedology and edaphology are used as if Syno with soil science. The study of the formation, chemistry, more and classification of soil is called pedology’. The study of ii of soil on organisms, especially on plants is called edaphology.

The diversity of names associated with this discipline is related to the various associations concerned. Indeed engineers, agronomists, chemists, geologists, physical geographers, ecologists, biologists, microbiologists, silviculturists, archeologists all contribute to further knowledge of soil and the advancement of soil science.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 14 Water – Too Little To Waste to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 14 Water – Too Little To Waste

→ We are not aware of the need to preserve freshwater.

→ Water resources are not being increased along with the population and their needs.

→ Sewage is a liquid waste.

→ The impurities in water are called contaminants.

→ Nitrates, Phosphates, metals… etc are the inorganic impurities in water.

→ Air is pumped into clarified water to help aerobic bacteria to grow.

→ Aeration causes organisms that break down waste to grow faster thus it leads to what is called a ‘Biological process’.

→ We can conserve water by adopting certain good practices.

→ Only one percent of all water resources is available freshwater.

→ The available resource of fresh water is getting depleted at a very fast pace due to different human activities.

→ Wastewater is generated at homes, industries, etc. by different human activities.

→ All the wastewater released by homes, industries, hospitals, offices, and other users is collectively called Sewage.

→ Sewage is a liquid waste. Most of it is water, which has dissolved and suspended impurities, disease-causing bacteria, and other microbes.

→ Sewage water contains inorganic, organic, and bacterial as well as other microbial contaminants.

→ Wastewater is treated in treatment plants.

→ Physical, chemical, and biological processes are involved in the treatment of wastewater at the treatment plants.

→ Chlorine kills harmful disease-causing organisms present in wastewater.

→ Aeration allows the growth of microbes that break down wastes.

→ Different types of drainage systems are open, closed, and underground.

→ Septic tanks also help in wastewater disposal.

→ Water should be treated before being released to water bodies.

→ Water must be conserved by individual efforts as well as through efforts made by the community.

→ Sewage: Liquid waste drained from houses, etc. for disposal

→ Wastewater: Water not useful for drinking

→ Contaminants: Pollutants

→ Septic tank: A type of tank used in houses for human excreta.

→ Drainage s3stem: Arrangement made to carry out wastewater and other material from homes.

→ Percolation tank: The tank which is used for filtration.

→ Contour trenches: An outline, especially of something curved ditch.

→ Bar screen: Rags, sUcks, cans, plastic packets, etc. removes from the waste wat€

→ Grit: Particles of stone or lending, relentless

→ Check dam: A type of dam constructed across a minor channel.

→ Rockfill dam: To conserve water to revive the forest area

→ Activated sludge: Cleaned sludge

→ On World Water Day, that is 22 March 2005, the period 2005-2015 was declared as the International Decade for action on “Water for Life”.

→ Homi Jehangir Bhabha:
Bhabha was born on October 30, 1909, in a wealthy Paris family. Even as a child he was interested in science. In fact, he studied the special theory of relativity in his 16th year. By that time nobody could understand that theory clearly. Jawaharlal Nehru wanted to make India self-sufficient in science and technology and he gave Bhabha a free hand to do what he wanted.

In 1948 the Atomic Energy Commission was set up and Bhabha made its Chairman. He was a man of refined taste and this way very evident whether it was the. choice of design for the building of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research or the site for the Ooty radio telescope.

He died in a plane crash at the age of 57. In 1967 the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay, was renamed the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre as a tribute to his dedication and work.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 13 Seed Dispersal to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 13 Seed Dispersal

→ After fertilization ovary develops as fruit.

→ Ovules develop into seeds.

→ When seeds germinate they give birth to new plants.

→ To avoid competition with the mother plant for air, water, and minerals, plants disperse their seeds to different distances.

→ Seeds of caltrops have light and hairy structures at one end.

→ Seeds that are dispersed through the air are usually light and are either very small or are light with wings on them.

→ In plants like maple, seeds have wing-like outgrowths.

→ The seeds adapted to float on water are usually light.

→ The entire coconut fruit floats on water and moves from one place to another.

→ Some seeds are sticky and get stuck to the beaks of birds and in course of flight they fall down at distant places.

→ People transfer seeds from one place to another.

→ A mustard plant produces more than 10,000 seeds in its lifetime.

→ Seeds are carried from one place to another so that they get suitable conditions to grow, this is called the dispersal of seeds.

→ Seed dispersal is essential for the survival of plants.

→ Seeds are of different shapes and sizes and structures on them that help in dispersal.

→ Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, birds, and animals.

→ Dispersal: Disband, separate.

→ Bursting: Break suddenly and violently apart.

→ Mechanism: A part of the machinery.

→ Fleshy fruit: The fruit has a rich plump which is thought and soft. ex: Mango

→ Germinate: Begin or cause to.

→ Survival: Continue to live or exist.

→ Condition: State of affairs, situation.

→ Excretion: Expel waste matter from the body.

→ Capsule: A small container with medicine inside which you swallow

→ Notice: Attention, heed, note.

→ A mustard plant produces more than 10.000 seeds in its lifetime. If all the seeds germinate to grow into adult plants, think how many seeds would be produced. If this happens for a period of six years the entire globe will be covered with mustard plants!

→ Archimedes:

• Archimedes, the father of modern mathematics lived during 287-212 B.C There is no school for the boy who does not know the story of Aim’discovery of the Principle of Displacement.
• Archimedes’ military inventions were spectacular. He devised cranes and multiplies which would enable a single man to lift the enemy’s vessels out of water.
• He was so absorbed in Geometry that he died unaware of a Roman soldier who ran his sword through him.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 12 Reproduction in Plants to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 12 Reproduction in Plants

→ Thalamus is the seat on which the parts of the flower are present.

→ Above the thalamus, there is a green tube-like structure called the calyx.

→ Androecium and Gynoecium are the male and female parts of flowers.

→ A sunflower is actually a bunch of flowers.

→ The small flowers in the bunch are called ‘florets’.

→ A flower that has four or more whorls is called a complete flower.

→ A flower in which any of these four whorls is missing is an incomplete flower.

→ A flower that has either stamens or pistils is called a unisexual flower.

→ A flower that has both stamens and pistil is a bisexual flower.

→ The process of pollen grains reaching the stigma from another is known as pollination.

→ The flower consists of four parts. Sepal, Petal, Stamen and Pistil.

→ Based on the presence and absence of floral parts flowers are two types. Complete flower and Incomplete flower.

→ Based on the presence of both or single sexual parts flowers are of two types. Bisexual flowers and Unisexual flowers.

→ Transfer of pollen grains from another to stigma is known as pollination. Flowers can be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated.

→ The fusion of male and female parts to form a zygote is called Fertilization.

→ On the basis of parts involved, reproduction in plants is of two types, sexual reproduction, and asexual reproduction.

→ The production of offspring from the zygote is called sexual reproduction.

→ The formation of new plants without sexual reproduction is Asexual reproduction.

→ Cutting: Notch, gash dividing into pieces.

→ Androecium: Male reproductive organ.

→ Gynoecium: Female reproductive organ.

→ Thalamus: Swollen head on the stalk of a flower.

→ Corolla: Attractive organ in a flower.

→ Calyx: Protective organ in a flower.

→ Stamen: The male organ of flowers that furnishes the pollen or fecundating dust.

→ Pistil: The seed-bearing organ of a flower.

→ Anther: Part of a flower’s stamen containing pollen.

→ Filament: Thread, fiber.

→ Budding: The production of buds on plants (Undeveloped flower).

→ Zygote: The diploid cell resulting from the union of a haploid spermatozoon and ovum.

→ Vegetative Propagation: Production of a new plant from vegetative parts of a plant.

→ Spore: Minute reproductive body of some plants.

→ Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from another to stigma.

→ FertilizatIon: Make fertile, enrich.

→ Birds and insects are the natural agents of pollination. Nowadays farmers use pesticides to control pests on crops. The enormous use of pesticides kills insects also. It affects pollination. Crop yield becomes reduced particularly in sunflower crops. The rate of pollination is reduced because of the lack of insects in the fields. Think! How we destroy our beautiful nature.

→ Alexander Fleming a Scottish scientist, discovered that a certain kind of mold (Penicillium) produces a substance, named after the mold, called Penicillin, which can destroy many kinds of disease-causing bacteria. Penicillin came to be known as an antibiotic and saved the lives of many soldiers in World War II.

→ Johannes Kepler:
Johannes Kepler was a student and associate of Tycho, but he was a contrast to the latter. While Tyclio was rich, robust, noble, passionate, and an inquisitive mechanical and experimental genius, Kepler was in penury, sickly, and a poor experimenter.

Tycho was an average in Mathematics, his disciple was an expert in the subject Kepler was a man of indomitable perseverance and overcame all his deficiencies and misfortunes to attain a high rank among the scientific men.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 8 Production and Management of Food From Plants to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 8 Production and Management of Food From Plants

→ The plants which are grown in large numbers to get useful products are known as Crops.

→ The process of yielding crops is called Agriculture.

→ For some crops like Jowar, red gram takes a minimum of 180 days or more for harvesting. Such crops are called Long term crops.

→ Some crops like green gram, black gram take 100 days for harvesting and are called Short term crops.

→ The crops grown in the rainy season are termed Kharif.

→ The crops that are grown only in winter are called Rabi.

→ Rice is the prime, most essential, and important staple food crop and also called global grain.

→ Rice was cultivated in the late Mesolithic period (9000 – 8000 B.C.) and in the Harappan civilization (2300 BC).

→ The paddy growing field is divided into so many plots (Kayyalu or Madulu).

→ In general, farmers start agricultural work before the monsoon reaches (May, June months).

→ Before growing crops plowing the soil properly is necessary. The wooden plow is used for plowing.

→ Agricultural practices are preparing the soil sowing of seeds, applying manure, irrigation, weeding, crop harvesting, and storage.

→ The selection of seeds is an important step in Agriculture.

→ National seed Development Corporation of India preserves and promotes different varieties of seeds.

→ Generally, farmers medicating seeds before making them germinate.

→ Nowadays farmers use the sophisticated seed drill used with the help of tractors.

→ Paddy planter is useful for farmers who cultivate paddy in large areas.

→ Wheat, Paddy, and sugarcane are generally affected by fungal diseases.

→ A farmer used a pesticide Dithane M-45 and Eldrige.

→ Manure is two types

1. Natural
2. Artificial.

→ Generally, farmers should use fertilizers keeping in view with the nature of the soil and the crops he wants to grow.

→ Paddy requires a high quantity of water.

→ Nowadays pumps are commonly used for lifting water, diesel, biogas, electricity is used to run these pumps.

→ Crop: The plants which are grown in large numbers to get useful products are known as crops.

→ Agriculture: The process of yielding crops ¡s called Agriculture.

→ Crop production: The production of crops.

→ Long-term crops: Some crops like Jowar, red gram takes a minimum of 180 days are called long-term crops.

→ Short-term crops: Some crops like green gram, black gram takes 100 days for harvest are called short term crops.

→ Kharif season: The crops grown in the rainy season are termed as Kharif season.

→ Rabi season: The crops that are grown only in the winter season.

→ Night duration: Duration of night.

→ Global grain: Rice is the prime, most essential, and important staple food also called global grain.

→ Plowing: Before growing crops plowing the soil is necessary which makes the soil loose.

→ Plots: Small piece of land. The form land ¡s made blocks or plots which is easier to leveling the form land and water for the crop.

→ Leveling: After plowing the fields have a lot of ups and downs. So leveler is are used to level the soil.

→ Sowing: Planting seeds %n the soiL

→ Selection: Before sowing farmers select healthy seeds which give healthy crops.

→ Seed crisis: Sometimes the rate of germination of the seeds Is not up to the mark. Sometimes never germinate. At sometimes they grow Into plants, but they are sterile.

→ Sprouting: When seeds are soaking in the water they germinate and produce the shoot.

→ Seed dispersal: The method of spreading seeds away from the parent plant for better germination.

→ Broadcasting: The method of dispersing the seeds by sprinkling.

→ Seed drill: It is an instrument used to sow seeds in the soil.

→ Nursery plot: Farmers develop seeds beds to grow paddy plantlets (Naru) in a plot, which needs to have their roots constantly submerged in water. They are to be uprooted and transplanted throughout the field (neatly).

→ Manure: The nutrients that enrich the fertility of the soil for the proper growth of plants.

→ PesticIdes: To control or kill the pests like grasshoppers and aphids, which damage crops and grains farmers use pesticides.

→ Paddy planter: It is easy to maintain proper distance sowing the seedlings. It is time-saving, ¡t is useful for farmers who cultivate paddy.

→ Biofertilizers: This is formed by decomposing plant and animal wastes. This is also called Natural Manure.

→ Chemical fertilizers: The manure which are prepared ¡n factories by using chemicals and is also called artificial manure.

→ Irrigation: The process of watering crop plants ¡n the field is known as irrigation.

→ Furrow irrigation: In this method of irrigation, the water is allowed to enter the field through channels, or furrows are made between two rows of crops.

→ Basin irrigation: The field is just filled with water as in the case of paddy.

→ Sprinklers: A modern device of watering plants.

→ Drip irrigation: When the availability of water is poor the water is made to reach the plants drop by drop.

→ Weeding: Removal of undesirable plants (weeds) which grow along with crop plants.

→ Weedicides: When crops are fully grown and may not be suitable for uprooting weeds, farmers use weedicides like 2-4 D’chloro phenoxy acetic acid to control or kill the weeds.

→ Harvesting: Collecting grains from the crop by cutting the matured plant is called harvesting.

→ Threshing: The dry plant’s stocks are beaten on a hard surface to remove the grain.

→ Winnowing: In winnowing the grains are poured out of a basket or tray held high up the wind blows the chaff, dust, and lighter seeds aside, while the heavy grains collect below.

→ Cold storage units: Here the vegetables, fruits, tamarind, chilies, and other products that are usually damaged and decolored within a short time.

→ Godowns: The place where the storage of dry grains to protect them from pests and microorganisms.

→ The name Oryza for paddy- which was named by Linnaeus. Thousands of varieties of paddy are available throughout the world. Oryza sativa is cultivated in Asia. Oryza glaberrima is cultivated in Africa. Oryza Glumaepatuia is cultivated in America. In our state, we have hundreds of varieties of paddy. Molagolukulu is the traditional good variety that is grown in coastal areas of Nellore. Amrita Sari, Bangaru Teega, Kolleti Kusuma, Potti Basangi, Sona Masuri are some of our traditional varieties.

→ In 1960 Rachael Carson wrote a book called ‘silent spring’ in which she pointed out the dangers of pesticides. Pesticides get into the bodies of microscopic plants and animals in the soil and water. When these plants and animals are eaten by fish the pesticides get into their bodies. Even if the fish are not seriously poisoned with each successive meal pesticides buildup inside their bodies.

A bird that eats these fish might get a concentrated lethal dose. DDT also accumulates in the eggshells weakening them and making the shells break before hatching. There are just two out of the numerous ways that pesticides are eaten, passed down the food chain, and accumulate in the bodies of higher animals including human beings causing sickness and sometimes death. Think, how dangerous the pesticides are…!

→ Paddy requires a high quantity of water. That is why paddy is grown in areas where plenty of water is available. Because of marketing and supporting prices, paddy is grown all over the country irrespective of water availability. For this farmers dig bore wells and use groundwater wherever water is not sufficient. There is a need to shift to those crops which require less water. In some areas, recently farmers grow fish in paddy growing fields.

→ To meet the food requirement of the growing population there should be an increase in the cultivated land. But nowadays parts of the agricultural land in rural areas remain uncultivated land because of the non-availability of seeds, power, water supply, market problems. Farmers thinking that agriculture is a non-profitable task.

Actually, agriculture is the flesh and blood of our country. So the young generation should develop more passion towards agriculture which would be the only beneficial profession in near future.

→ Antonie Philips Van Leeuwenhoek
Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek was born (October24,1637-August 26, 1723) was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. He was commonly known as “the father of microbiology” and considered to be the first microbiologist. He is best known for his work on the improvement of microscopes, he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules and which are now referred to as microorganisms. He was also the first to record microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa, and blood flow in capillaries. Leeuwenhoek made more than 500 optical lenses. He also created at least 25 microscopes, of different types, of which only nine survive. His microscopes were made of silver or copper fir cones, holding hand-made lenses. Those who have survived are capable of magnification up to 275 times. His scientific research was of remarkably high quality.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 7 Different Ecosystems to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 7 Different Ecosystems

→ The word ecosystem was first used in 1935 by A.G. Tansley a British Botanist and Ecologist.

→ Nature works as a system in which organisms and their communities are influenced by many non-living environmental factors.

→ An ecosystem can be defined as a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment.

→ Living things like plants, animals and microorganisms are known as biotic components of the ecosystem.

→ Soil, water, sunlight etc. are called abiotic components of the ecosystem.

→ There is a feeding relationship between plants and animals.

→ There is an interdependence between plants and animals for space, reproduction, shelter etc.

→ Scientists describe the way energy moves through the ecosystem, they use the term food chains.

→ Several plants, algae use sunlight to make their food and are called producers.

→ Consumers eat other living things and get their energy from them.

→ Decomposers feed on the wastes of plants and animals after they die. They retain nutrients to the soil for the plants to use as the cycle begin again.

→ Mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems on earth, deriving nourishment from terrestrial fresh water and tidal saltwater.

→ A living community cannot live in isolation.

→ The existence of the living world depends upon the flow of energy and the circulation of materials through the ecosystem.

→ A food chain consists of four steps – the producers – primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers.

→ The energy accumulated by plants in an ecosystem is called Primary production.

→ The total energy produced during photosynthesis is the Gross Primary production.

→ Only a small part of the energy is fixed in the form of chemical potential energy in the protoplasm.

→ Habitat: Habitat is the Natural living place of an organism or a group of organisms. Land and water are the major habitats.

→ Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a Natural unit and has both abiotic and biotic components which interact and influence each other.

→ Food web: A food web consists of several interlinked food chains and each organism in a food web will be a member of more than one food chain.

→ Producers: Plants are the only organisms capable of carrying out photosynthesis and producing food for all living organisms in any ecosystem. For this reason, plants are called producers.

→ Consumers: The organisms which consume the food produced by plants are called consumers. Ex: Animals.

→ Decomposers: Some of the organisms, obtain their nutritional requirements by decomposing the dead bodies of both producers and consumers of the ecosystem are called Decomposers. Ex: Bacteria, Fungi.

→ Rodents: Rodents are herbivorous or omnivorous mammals with one pair of chisel-line incisor teeth projecting from each jaw at the front of the mouth and specialized for continuous gnawing. Ex: rat, squirrel etc.

→ Flora and Fauna: All the plants of a particular place and all the animals that live wild in a particular area is called flora and fauna.

→ Thermophile: Describing microorganisms that require high temperatures around 60°C for growth.

→ Mangroves: Mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems and the changes take place in an ecosystem.

→ Energy flow: All the organisms in an ecosystem derive energy from food to live.

→ Nocturnals: The animals which are active during the night. Ex: bat.

→ Biotic components: The living things like plants, animals and microorganisms are known as biotic components.

→ Abiotic components: Soil, water, sunlight etc. are called abiotic components.

→ In Ecosystem, we study the changes occurring in the habitat like organisms moving away from the habitat or entering the habitat.

It is said that there are more microorganisms in the sea than there are stars in the universe. The world’s oceans host 32 of the 34 known phyla on earth and ocean be¬tween 5,00,000 and 10 million marine species. Species diversity is as high as 1000 per square metre in the Indo-Pacific Ocean and new oceanic species are continuously being discovered.

→ Sir Isaac Newton:
Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727) was an English Physicist and Mathematician who was widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophic Naturalis Principia Mathematica (“Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”). First published

Newton Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists. View of the physical universe for the next three centuries. It also demonstrated that the motion of objects on the Earth and that of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles. By deriving Kepler’s laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the cosmos.

Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours of the visible spectrum.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 6 Biodiversity and its Conservation to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 6 Biodiversity and its Conservation

→ Many kinds of plants and animal varieties exist in the world.

→ There is no monogamy or uniqueness in the structure and functions of nature even at the micro-level also.

→ When animals vanish forever from the earth, the species has become extinct.

→ The organisms whose species might be wiped off from the earth in near future are called endangered species.

→ The book published by IUWC that contains the details of Endangered and Extinct species is called RED DATA Book.

→ Natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, forest fires or human intervention wipe out diverse forms in an area.

→ Plants or animal species found restricted to a particular area of the country are called Endemic species.

→ Diversity is not only in plants and animals, but also great diversity in food crops.

→ The number of insects is decreasing due to the spraying of pesticides.

→ The government of India has taken initiative to conserve wildlife by making National Parks and sanctuaries to conserve the forest.

→ At present, there are 27 tiger reserves in our country.

→ Conservation of Biodiversity is an important issue to protect our nature for future generations.

→ The birds which move from one region to another for food and shelter are called migratory birds.

→ To make a ton of paper 17 trees have to be cut down.

→ Biosphere reserve: The part of the earth occupied by living organisms – keep for future use. Forests are Biosphere reserves.

→ Biodiversity: The term Biodiversity is commonly used to describe the variety and variability of living organisms.

→ Endemic species: Plants or animals species found restricted to a particular area of a country are called Endemic species.

→ Flora and Fauna: There are long sources in nature – these are plants and animals otherwise known as Flora (plants) and Fauna (animals).

→ Deforestation: Cutting down forests for human use is called deforestation.

→ Endangered species: The organisms whose number have declined rapidly and the species might be wiped off from the earth in near future are called Endangered species.

→ Extinct species: When animals vanish forever from the earth is said that the species has become Extinct.

→ Red Data Book : (W.W.F.) World Wild Life Federation or the (I.U.W.C.) International Union For Wild Life Conservation published a book containing the details of endangered and threatened species of Flora and Fauna called Red Data Book or Red Ust Book.

→ National Park: The place where Wildlife is protected in the natural environment is National Parks. Ex: Corbett National Park – Gauhati.

→ Sanctuary: A sanctuary is a pl2ce where conservation of birds in their natural habitat. Ex: Palak Sanctuary – Adilabad.

→ Migration: The birds which don’t have permanent nestlings, join into small flocks and move from one region to other for food and shelter (nestling) called Migration. Ex: Siberian Cranes.

→ Invasive: Involving the introduction of instruments or other objects into the body.

→ Allen Spades: Non-native species – IntroducIng a species that does not belong to the particular habitat. In Hyderabad Invasion of pigeons (a non-native species) lead to decrease crows.

→ Conservation: Preservation of the natural environment

→ According to noted ecologist E.O. Wilson, every year nearly 10,000 species or 27 species per day become extinct throughout the world. If this trend of extinction continues, the very existence of man will be affected.

→ India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of the worlds’ amphibians and 50% of lizards are endemic to the Western Ghats of India.

→ Invasive Alien Species (IAS)?
When alien species (non-native species) are introduced or invades, it spreads outside the natural habitats and threatens biodiversity. Even transport of few species to a new environment becomes invasive. Their negative impacts on food, security, plant, animal, and human health can be extensive and substantial, eg. The Spanish flag plant of the forests and the water hyacinth of lakes are most notorious for invasions. In cities like Hyderabad invasion of pigeons (a non-native species) lead to a decrease in crows. Nowadays a city like Hyderabad lacks these natural scavengers.

→ Some endangered animals are brought from the wild area and raised in the zoo and released into the wild area again. Here some conservationists disguised as pandas feed the animal before leaving it into the wild. It gives a natural feeling of being fed by mother and living between the pandas. This can survive without human care.

→ Louis Pasteur
French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822, in Dole, located in the Jura region of France. He was skilled at drawing and painting. He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree (1840) Bachelor of Science degree (1842) and a doctorate (1847) at the Ecole Normale in Paris.

He demonstrated that bacteria were responsible for souring wine, beer, and even milk. He then invented a process where bacteria could be removed by boiling and then cooling liquids. This process is known as pasteurization.

Pasteur’s first vaccine discovery was in 1879, with a disease called chicken cholera. Pasteur went on to extend his germ theory to develop causes and vaccinations for diseases such as anthrax, cholera, TB, and Smallpox. In 1882, he decided to focus his efforts on the problem of rabies. On July 6, 1885, Pasteur vaccinated Joseph Meister, a 9 – year old boy who had been bitten by a rabid dog.

This began an international fundraising campaign to build the Pasteur Institute in Paris, which was inaugurated on November 14, 1888. He died on September 28, 1895.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 5 Attaining the Age of Adolescence to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 5 Attaining the Age of Adolescence

→ We see changes in the age of 10 – 19 years. This period is called “Adolescence”. During this period changes are observed and outside the body.

→ Growth is one of the important characters of human beings.

→ Initially, the girls grow faster than boys.

→ Changes occurring in adolescent boys and girls are different.

→ Generally, a change in voice is seen during adolescence.

→ The Adam’s apple is actually a partial growth of our voice box or larynx.

→ Many Adolescent boys and girls get pimples on the face, because of increased activity of sweat and sebaceous glands.

→ At this age, male sex organs like the Testes and penis develop completely.

→ In girls, the ovary enlarges and eggs begin to mature.

→ The sex organs by which children are identified as boys or girls at birth represent primary sexual characters.

→ Reproduction is most important for the continuation of the human race.

→ The first menstrual cycle begins at adolescence and is termed as ‘menarche’. Stoppage of menstruation is termed ‘menopause’.

→ If menstruation remains irregular for over a year there is a need to consult a doctor (gynecologist)

→ Marriage is a social and cultural practice to produce the next generation in our country.

→ Child marriage is a social evil.

→ The legal age for marriage is 18 years for girls and 21 years for boys.

→ Adolescent queries must never go unanswered.

→ Endocrine glands help in the regulation of the functioning of the human body.

→ The secretions of endocrine glands are known as hormones.

→ It is more essential to be careful about health and hygiene.

→ Adolescence: It is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development during the period between childhood and adulthood.

→ Teenage: Person aged between lo and 19 years.

→ Larynx: It is a part of the human respiratory system. It is generally called the ‘voice box It has vocal cords that vibrate during expiration and produce sounds.

→ Adam’s apple: It is a partial growth of our voice box or larynx. The adam’s apple is formed due to elongation of the thyroid cartilage which protrudes out in front of the neck. This is caused mainly by some male hormones during adolescence.

→ Maturity: Adolescents become capable of reproduction when their testes and ovaries begin to produce gametes. This is called maturity, mostly in between 11 – 15 years.

→ Sweat glands: They are present in the dermis of the skin. They absorb the excess salts and water from the blood vessels and send them outside of the skin as sweat.

→ Sebaceous glands: They are present in the dermis layer of the skin. They produce oil-like substances like sebum. It helps the skin to become dry.

→ Secondary sexual characters: At the age of Adolescence, breasts begin to develop in girls whereas, in boys, facial hair, mustaches, and beards begin to grow. They are called secondary sexual characters.

→ Menstruation cycle: The cycle of changes that takes place in the female reproductive system ¡s called the menstrual cycle. It occurs once in 28 to 30 days.

→ Menarche: The first menstrual cycle begins at adolescence and is termed as ‘menarche’. It is a sign of starting the release of ova in female reproductive life.

→ Menopause: At 45 to 50 years of age, the menstrual cycle stops stoppage of menstruation is termed as ‘menopause’.

→ Pregnancy: After the fertilization of male and female gametes the fertilized egg is formed. This is received by the uterus and this results in pregnancy.

→ Endocrine glands: The glands which help in the regulation of the functioning of the human body are called endocrine glands. They release chemical substances called hormones.

→ Hormones: They are chemical substances released by endocrine glands.

→ Testosterone: The male hormone released by the testes.

→ Estrogen: It is a female hormone produced by the ovaries.

→ Consuming tobacco (gutkha, cigarettes, cigar, beedi, khaini) damages the internal organs of the body. The number of addicted people at the age of 15 or below is 57.57 lakhs (68%) in Andhra Pradesh. When they reach 30 years of age their internal organ system becomes damaged, and this leads to several problems and sometimes, may cause death also. It is a dangerous trend in our country. So you should be aware of healthy habits.

→ Charles Robert Darwin:
Charles Robert Darwin (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descendent over time from w.ctorc, and proposed the scientific theory that his branching pattern of Evolution resulted from u process that he called Natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved ¡n selective breeding.

Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book on the origin of species, overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 4 Reproduction in Animals to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 4 Reproduction in Animals

→ Animals that lay eggs are called oviparous. E.g. Hen, Duck, Crow, Pigeon

→ Animals that lay eggs do not have epidermal hair or external ears.

→ Animals that give birth to their offspring are called viviparous. These animals have epidermal hair on their skin and external ears.

→ The Asexual Reproduction takes place in Hydra is by Budding.

→ Reproduction without the fusion of gametes is called Asexual Reproduction.

→ The Asexual Reproduction in which an animal reproduces by dividing into two individuals is called Binary Fission.

→ Sexual Reproduction is the fusion of the male reproductive cell with the female reproductive cell.

→ A zygote is formed by the fusion of the female reproductive cell or ovum and the male reproductive cell or sperm.

→ The male reproductive system includes a pair of Tests, two seminal ducts and a Penis. % Female reproductive system contains a pair of ovaries, oviducts (also called fallopian tubes) and uterus.

→ The fusion of the male game (sperm) and the female game (ovum) is called fertilization. This results in the formation of fertilized egg or zygote.

→ The embryo continues to develop in the uterus.

→ The period (about 270 – 280 days) a baby is born is called the gestation period.

→ From the 3rd month of pregnancy, the embryo is called the foetus.

→ Fertilization that takes place inside the body of the female is called Internal fertilization. E.g.: Human beings, animals.

→ Fertilization that takes place outside the female body is called External Fertilization. E.g. Fish, frogs, Starfish, etc.

→ The marked changes that take place during the development of tadpole larva to adult are called metamorphosis.

→ The animals which carry both male and female reproductive organs are called ‘Bisexual animals’ also called Hermaphrodites.

→ Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a complete organism.

→ Reproduction: The ability of an organism (plant or animal) to produce a new generation of individuals of the same species is called Reproduction.

→ Budding: Hydra, a microscopic organism reproduces asexually. Buds are formed on the body surface. These buds separated from the hydra and develop into a new individual. This type of asexual reproduction is called Budding.

→ Uterus: It ¡s a part of the female reproductive system. This is a strong muscular sac, where the embryo develops into a baby.

→ External fertilization: The process of fertilization that occurs outside of an organism is called external fertilization.

→ Pregnancy: The period from zygote to the fully developed foetus is called pregnancy.

→ Zygote: Fertilization results in the formation of a zygote.

→ Binary fission: A type of asexual reproduction in which an animal reproduces by dividing into two individuals is called Binary Fission.

→ Ovary: A part of ovaries lie inside the abdomen in the hip region of the female body, one on each side of the uterus.

→ Internal fertilization: Fertilization that takes place inside the body of the female animal is called internal fertilization.

→ Embryo: The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells. These cells develop into different tissues and organs in the body. This developing structure is termed an embryo.

→ Testes: The male reproductive organs include a pair of testes which are egç shaped and produces the male gametes called sperms.

→ Epidermal hairs: The hair that grows on the skin (outer layer of the skin) is called epidermal hairs.

→ Foetus: From 3 months (12 weeks) of pregnancy the embryo is called a foetus.

→ Oviparous: The animals which lay eggs are called oviparous. E.g. Hen, Frog.

→ Sperms: Testes produce millions of male gametes called sperms or male gametes.

→ Fertilization: The fusion of male (sperm) garnet and female (ova) garnet is called fertilization.

→ Bisexual animals: Some animals carry both male and female reproductive organs. Such animals are called bisexual animals also called hermaphrodites.

→ Viviparous: The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous.

→ Ova: The ovary produces female gametes called ova or egg. Ova is a single cell surrounded by an outer covering and a nucleus floating in the cytoplasm.

→ Asexual reproduction: New individuals are formed without the fusion of gametes. This process is called Asexual reproduction.

→ Sexual reproduction: New individuals are formed with the fusion of male and female gametes. This process is called sexual reproduction.

→ Metamorphosis: Transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis.

→ Offsprings: Mother gives birth to the new individuals (baby) after fertilization is called offsprings.

→ Test tube babies:
You might have heard that in some women oviducts are blocked. These women are unable to bear babies because sperm cannot reach the eggs for fertilization. In such cases, doctors collect freshly released eggs and sperms and keep them together for few hours for IVF or in vitro fertilization (fertilization outside the body). In case fertilization occurs, the zygote is allowed to develop for about a week and then it is placed in the mother’s uterus. Complete development takes place in the uterus and the baby is born like any other baby. Babies born through this technique are called test-tube babies. This term is actually misleading because babies cannot grow in test tubes.

→ Some animals like earthworms are neither male nor female. They carry both male and female reproductive organs. Such animals are called “bisexual animals” (also called hermaphrodite).

→ A.P.J. Abdul Kalam:
Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam (born 15th October 1931 – died 27th July 2015) usually referred to as Dr A.P.J.Abdul Kalam is an Indian administrator, who served as the 11th President of India from 2002 to 2007. Kalam was born and raised in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu, studied Physics at St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli and Aerospace Engineering at the Madras Institute of Technology, Chennai.

Before his term as President, he worked as an aerospace engineer with Defence Research and Development and Indian Space Research organisation. Kalam is popularly known as the Missile Man of India for his work on the development of ballistic missiles and launch vehicle technology. He played a pivotal organisational, technical and political role in India’s Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998, the first since the original nuclear test by India in 1974. Some scientific experts have however called Kalam a man with no authority over nuclear physics but who just carried on the works of Homi J.Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai

Kalam was elected the President of India in 2002, defeating Lakshmi Sahagal and was supported by both the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janatha Party, the major political parties of India. He is currently a visiting professor at the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad and Indian Institute of Management Indore, Chancellor of the Indian Institute of space science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, a professor of Aerospace Engineering at Anna University (Chennai).

Kalam advocated plans to develop India into a developed nation by 2020 in his book India 2020. He has received several prestigious awards including the Bharata Ratna, Indies highest civilian honour. He launched his mission for the youth of the nation in 2011 called the what can I give movement with a central theme to defeat corruption in India.

A.RJ. Abdul Kalam’s 79th birthday was recognised as World Student’s Day by United Nations. He has also received honorary doctorates from 40 universities. The Government of India has honoured him with the Padma Bhushan in 1981and the Padma Vibhushan in 1990 for his work with ISRO and DRDO.

Students can go through AP State Board 6th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 12 Towards Equality to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 6th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 12 Towards Equality

→ We can observe the differences among the people around us are called diversity.

→ All their diversities are influenced both by the geography and history of the place where we live

→ India is a country of many diversities.

→ We speak different languages, have various types of food,-celebrate different festivals, and practice different religions.

→ Ar People began to live in their new places, causes intermixing of cultures, regions become diverse.

→ People feel safe and secure with people who look, talk, dress, and think like them.

→ Prejudice means to judge other people negatively or see them as inferior.

→ We can be prejudices about people’s religious beliefs, the color of their skin, the region they come from, the clothes they wear, etc.

→ In general, our prejudices about others are so strong that we don’t want to form friendships with them and we may in ways that hurt them.

→ People of other religions may be discriminated against by treating them as inferior or by criticizing their customs or practices.

→ Their customs are practices.

→ There are eight religions in the world and all of them are practiced in India.

→ Activities like cleaning, washing, cutting hair picking garbage, etc. are seen less value, and people who do this work are seen as dirty or impure.

→ This belief is an important aspect of the caste system.

→ Those who placed themselves at the top called themselves upper caste and considered. themselves as superior.

→ Those who were places at the bottom were seen as unworthy and called ’untouchables’.

→ The upper caste acted in ways that did hot give the so, called untouchables’ the same right as they enjoyed which is called caste discrimination,

→ Dalit means those who have been ‘broken’ which is used to show how social prejudices and discrimination have broken the Dalit people.

→ The government refers to this group of people as Scheduled Castes (S.C.)

→ The people who fought for the rights of oppressed caste are likewise ’Jyothibai Phule, Potti Sree Ramulu. Vennelakanti Raghaviah, Gora Saraswathi, etc.

→ All human beings are born free and casual and both men and women have equal social, political, and economical rights.

→ Savitribai Phule is regarded as the first female teacher in India.

→ She played an important role in fighting for the rights of women in India during British rule.

→ Savitribai Phule is regarded as the ’Mother of Indian Feminism’.

→ Racial discrimination is discrimination against individuals on the basis of their skin color or racial or ethnic origin.

→ Inequality threatens long-term social and economic development. It also causes social unrest.

→ In the early 19th century, debates and discussions took place reached out to the public and they caused part of the social change.

→ The prominent reformers of India are Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Iswara Chandra Vidyasagar, Swamy Dayananda Saraswathi, Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu, and Pandita Ramabai.

→ In the second half of the 19th century, many movements began against caste discrimination and demanded social equality and justice.

→ The reformers who fought against caste discrimination in this period are Sri Narayana Guru, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, C.V. Ramaswamy Naiker, Jyothiba Phule, and Savitribai Phule.

→ People who fought against British rule also fought against discrimination to unite people.

→ The practice of Safi was banned in 1829.

→ Dr. Anandibai Joshi was the first Indian female doctor. She acquired a Doctor of Medicine in 1886.

→ Dr. Nelson Mandela, after 27 years in prison, achieved independence for South Africa.

→ He led the fight for human rights around the world.

→ He is known as the Gandhi of South Africa.

→ Importance has been given to achieve equality in the Indian Constitution.

→ Untouchability was abolished by Law. All the people got equal importance.

→ The government tries to achieve equality both through the law and through the welfare- programs.

→ Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam was the 11th President of India. Impact of so many problems in his life he reached his goal.

→ Mariyappan Thangavelu is an Indian Paralympic high jumper.

→ Sipdhutai showed that for a committed individual nothing is impossible.

→ In spite of poverty, child marriage, gender discrimination, and being abandoned by her family, yet nothing stopped Sindhutai to achieve her goals.

→ Gender Equality: both men and women should receive equal treatment.

→ Untouchability: It is a practice where some lower caste people are kept at a distance.

→ Apartheid: discrimination on grounds of race.

→ Sustainable development: is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

→ Discrimination: the unjust or prejudiciál treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race age, sex, or other characteristics.

→ Orthodox: traditional

→ Wrestle: engage in deep thought, consideration, or debate.