Srinivas

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 7 Coal and Petroleum to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 7 Coal and Petroleum

→ Natural resources can be classified into exhaustible and inexhaustible resources.

→ Fossil fuels are formed from the dead remains of living organisms under the earth over millions of years.

→ Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are fossil fuels.

→ Coke, coal tar, and coal gas are the products of coal.

→ Petroleum is formed from the remains of tiny organisms called plankton.

→ Petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene, paraffin wax, lubricating oil are obtained by refining petroleum.

→ Natural gas is found sometimes along with petroleum and sometimes without petroleum.

→ The useful substances which are obtained from petroleum and natural gas are called petrochemicals.

→ Excess use of fossil fuels causes air pollution, greenhouse effect, global warming, and many health problems.

→ Fossil fuels resources are very limited. We should think of alternatives.

→ Advanced science and technology have changed our lives.

→ Natural resources: The resources obtained from nature are called natural resources.

→ Exhaustible Resources: The resources which are limited in nature and can be exhausted by human activities are called exhaustible resources.

→ Inexhaustible resources: The resources which are unlimited ¡n nature and not likely to be exhausted by human activities are called inexhaustible resources.

→ Petroleum: Petroleum ¡s o complex mixture mainly consists of hydrocarbons.

→ Fractional distillation: It is one type of distillation in which fractionating columns are used to separate a mixture of compounds.

→ Natural gas: Natural gas ¡s a very important fossil fuel.

→ CNG: Natural gas is stored under high pressure is called compressed natural gas.

→ Coke: It is a tough, porous, black in color and purest form of carbon substance.

→ Coal gas: The gas obtained during the processing of coal to get a coke.

→ Coal tar: It is a black colored thick liquid with an unpleasant smell

→ Carbonization: Theslowprocessofconvertion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization.

→ Plankton: The tiny organisms found in the bottom of seas and oceans.

→ Fossil fuels: The fuels formed from the dead remains of living organisms are called fossil fuels.

→ Petrochemicals: The substances obtained from petroleum and natural gas are coiled petrochemicals.

→ Petroleum refinery: The process of separating the various constituents fractions of petroleum is petroleum refinery.

→ Michael Faraday (1791 – 1867):

• He was an English scientist who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.
• His discoveries include those ûf electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and electrolysis.
• As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of a bunsen burner.

Students can go through AP Board 7th Class Science Notes 11th Lesson Fibres and Fabrics to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP Board 7th Class Science Notes 11th Lesson Fibres and Fabrics

→ Fibres are derived from plants, animals as well as chemicals.

→ Silk is derived from Silkmoth.

→ Wool is derived from animals like sheep, goat, yak and camel.

→ Marino sheep is the world famous breed for wool rearing.

→ Sheep is the main source of wool production in Andhra Pradesh.

→ Angora goat is the world wide famous breed for wool.

→ Rearing or farming of sheep is a branch of animal husbandry in India.

→ Fleece is used to make wool.

→ There are 6 stages in processing fibres into wool.

→ They are shearing, scouring, sorting, dyeing, carding, combing and spinning.

→ Removing fleece of animal along with the outer thin layer of skin is called shearing.

→ The process of separating the fleece of animal into sections based on its quality is known as sorting.

→ The process of wrapping the fleece between the two surfaces to make the fibre into a fluffy roll is called carding.

→ Process of winding together the fibres to form a yarn is called Spinning.

→ Larvae and caterpillars are called silkworms.

→ The capsule like structure is known as cocoon (pattukaaya).

→ Rearing of silkworms for obtaining silk is known as Sericulture.

→ Andhra Pradesh stands in second place in the production of silk in the country.

→ The process of killing larvae inside the cocoon by putting them in steam is called stifling.

→ The process of extracting threads from cocoon is called Reeling.

→ The Scientific name of the Silk moth that yields silk is known as Bombyx mori.

→ The silk obtained from bombyx mori is called Mulberry silk.

→ Animal fibres burn slowly but not continuously when compared to plant fibres. Animal fibres dissolve in Chlorine based bleach.

→ Keratin is the major protein present in wool.

→ Silk fibres are made of protein are called fibroin.

→ Artificial fibres or synthetic fibers are made of chemicals obtained from wood pulp or petroleum.

→ Examples for artificial fibres are Acrylic, Rayon, Nylon, Polyester etc.

→ Except Rayon, remaining artificial fibres are made of chemicals, their productions causes environmental pollution.

→ Clothes made of animal fibres (wool, silk) should be stored carefully preventing the attack of insects.

→ The process of removal of shrinkage from silk clothes is called Rolling.

→ Mohair : The wool derived from Angora goat.

→ Shearing : Removing fleece of animals along with the outer thin layer of skin is called shearing.

→ Scouring : To remove dirt or grease from (cloth or fibres) by means of a detergent.

→ Sorting : The process of separating the fleece of animal into sections based on its quality is known as sorting.

→ Dyeing : To colour (a material), especially by soaking in a colouring solution.

→ Combing : The pulling of fleece through the metal teeth of a combing machine is called combing.

→ Carding : The process of wrapping the fleece between the two surfaces to make the fibre into a fluffy roll is called carding.

→ Spinning : The process of winding together the fibres to form a yarn is called spinning.

→ Knitting : The process of making woolen garment is known as knitting.

→ Cocoon : The capsule like structure formed by silk worm is known as cocoon (pattukaaya).

→ Sericulture : Raising silkworms in order to obtain raw silk.

→ Reeling : The process of extracting threads from cocoon is called Reeling.

→ Bleach : To remove the colour from, as by means of chemical agents or sunlight.

→ Keratin : Major protein present in wool.

→ Fibroin : Protein present in the silk fibres is fibroin.

→ Acrylic : Artificial fibre prepared from a synthetic fibre acrylic used to make sweaters and shawls.

→ Nylon : First fully synthetic fibre made in 1931, from coal and water. It is strong, elastic and light weight.

→ Polyester : It is used to make shirts, sarees and other dresses. It- doesn’t get wrinkled easily.

→ Synthetic fabrics : The artificial fibres made from wood pulp or petroleum.

→ Recycle : The process of waste products to regain materials for human use.

→ Wrinkles : Formation of foldings in animal fibres (wool and silk) due to poor maintenance.

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Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 2 Cell: The Basic Unit of Life to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 2 Cell: The Basic Unit of Life

→ All living organisms are made of cells.

→ Cells were first observed by Robert Hooke in 1665.

→ Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to see living bodies under the microscope which he had constructed himself.

→ The cell has 3 main parts:

1. The Cell membrane,
2. Cytoplasm,
3. Nucleus.

→ Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the orchid leaf.

→ Plant cells differ from those of animals in having an additional layer around the cell membrane termed cell wall.

→ The cell wall gives strength and rigidity to plants.

→ Cell exhibits a variety of shapes and sizes and numbers.

→ Single-celled animals are called unicellular organisms.

→ More than one cell is called a multicellular organism.

→ Basic functions in multi-cellular organisms are carried out by a variety of cells.

→ Cell: The smallest biological unit capable of carrying out all of the fundamental activities of life. The basic unit of structure and function of any living thing.

→ Cell membrane: The thin, flexible layer that surrounds a cell and which controls all that enters and leaves the cell.

→ Cell Wall: Cells, the outermost non-living cellulose layer that surrounds the entire cell, including the cell membrane.

→ Cytoplasm: That part of a cell’s protoplasm that lies outside of its nucleus.

→ Nucleus: A spherical structure present at the center of the cell.

→ Unicellular: An organism composed of just one cell.

→ Multicellular: Organism formed by more than one cell.

→ Organ: All organisms are made of smaller particles called organs.

→ Organelles: The small functional structures of the cell.

→ Pseudopodia: False feet or the structures formed by the unicellular organisms to capture food or for locomotion.

→ Staining: Obtain color to the cells

→ Magnification: Expanding the size of the structure

→ Focusing: To visualize the object by light

→ Centriole: In animal cells, a structure outside the nucleus organizes the spindle fibers during cell reproduction.

→ Contractile Vacuoles: Large sacs found ¡n the cells of certain protozoans that remove the water that has accumulated inside the cell by pumping it to the outside of the cell.

→ Food Vacuoles: The sacs where food particles are digested that are found in the cytoplasm of protozoan cells.

→ Micrometer: Hundred part of millimeter 1/100 mm

→ Nanometer: Thousand part of micrometer 1/1000 (urn)

→ Heterogeneous: Different state of features in a group

→ Teeming: Occupying the full of container

→ Stomata: Tiny pores on leaves

→ Contractile vacuole: A sac-like cell organelle that pumps fluid in a cyclic manner

→ Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) in 1674 was the first human to see living bodies like bacteria, yeast, protozoa, Red Blood cells, and the teeming life in a drop of water. He prepared several types of magnifying glasses and used his lenses to study both living and non-living things using under a microscope.

→ Robert Brown (1773 – 1858):

• Robert Brown was born in 1773. He made a significant contribution to our understanding of cells.
• He was the first person to observe the “Nucleus” in the epidermis of orchid leaves.
• He died in 1858.

Students can go through AP State Board 6th Class Science Notes Chapter 2 Knowing About Plants to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 6th Class Science Notes Chapter 2 Knowing About Plants

→ The important parts of a plant are roots, stem and leaves.

→ The Taproot system and fibrous root system are two types of root systems seen in plants.

→ Dicot plants have tap root systems whereas Monocot plants have a fibrous root system. Roots help to fix the plant to the soil, absorbs water and minerals.

→ In some plant’s roots give additional support to the plants whereas fibrous roots, help to store the food.

→ The shoot system consists of stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits.

→ The stem transports water and minerals from roots to upper plant parts and food from leaves to other parts.

→ Potato, turmeric, garlic, ginger and sugarcane store food material in the stem.

→ Leaf base, petiole and lamina are parts of a leaf.

→ Reticulate and parallel venation are found in leaves.

→ The plants with taproot systems have leaves with reticulate venation and plants with fibrous roots have parallel venation.

→ Leaves are involved in preparing food. They also help in the exchange of gases and transpiration.

→ The flower has colourful parts to attract the insects for pollination.

→ We grow plants for colourful flowers which give beauty to nature.

→ Taproot: Large, central and dominant root from which other roots arise laterally.

→ Fibrous roots: A cluster of thin and uniform roots arising from the seed during germination.

→ Monocots: The plants which contain only one seed leaf within the seed.

→ Dicots: The plants which contain two seed leaves within the seed.

→ Node: Part of the stem, where the leaf and other parts arise.

→ Terminal bud: The bud is located at the tip of the stern.

→ Auxiliary bud: The bud or shoot at the axil of a leaf.

→ Leaf: a flattened structure of higher plants, typically green and blade-like structure.

→ Petiole: A stalk-like structure that joins a leaf to a stem.

→ Reticulate venation: The veins present in the dicot leaves are arranged web-like all over the lamina.

→ Parallel venation: The veins present in the monocot leaves are arranged parallel to each other.

→ Stomata: Small pores in the leaf lamina.

→ TranspiratIon: Process of releasing water in the brain of vapour by leaves.

→ Photosynthesis: The food preparation process in plants.

→ Lateral roots: The smaller roots arise from the taproot.

→ Seed leaves: The first leaves emerging from the seed during germination.

→ Cotyledon: Seed leaf within the seed.

→ Tuberous roots: The roots which store food materials.

→ Shoot system: The aerial part of the plant body above the ground.

→ Stem: Main axis of the shoot system.

→ Internode: The part of the stem between two successive nodes.

→ Lamina: The flat green portion of the leaf.

→ Veins: Prominent lines appear on the Leaf lamina.

→ Midrib: The long vein that is present in the middle of the lamina.

→ Veinlets: The even finer divisions of veins in the leaf.

→ Venation: The arrangement of veins in the lamina.

→ Mangroves: The trees that grow in coastal saltwater.

→ flower: The sexual part of a plant

→ Petals: Colourful parts in a flower

→ Pollination: The transfer of pollen from flower to flower or with ¡n the flower.

→ Aerial roots: In some plants, the roots grow above the ground.

→ Modification of Roots:
Some plants store food in their roots and stems. Some plants like radish, carrot, beetroot store food materials in their roots. These roots bulge out and are called tuberous roots. Can you give some examples?

→ Modification of STEM:
Some plants like potato, turmeric, garlic, ginger and sugarcane store food material in the stem due to which the stem bulges in size. Generally, we think that these are all tubers or roots. Actually, they are modified stems.

→ Pottikkalu:
A Pottikkalu is a traditional food of Konaseema of Godavari districts. Leaves of jack fruit tree are used in its preparation. They make cups with these leaves and fill them with batter made of black gram and rice Rava/idly Rava. These cups are steamed to get Pottikkalu. They can be taken with any chutney like that of idly. They are healthy and delicious with jack fruit flavour.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 1 Reading Maps of Different Kinds to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 1 Reading Maps of Different Kinds

→ We use symbols to show any physical object on the map.

→ If we are asked to show Delhi on the India map, we will mark a point (●) and label it as Delhi.

→ All physical objects are shown on the map with the help of a point, line, or area symbol.

→ Physical maps show the variety of landforms (plains, mountains, plateaus, etc.) and depict the height of places.

→ One way in which we can show heights on maps is through the use of color.

→ All heights on the land are calculated from the seal level.

→ Heights are shown in different shades of colors.

→ A contour is a line joining the places with equal heights.

→ The distance between two contour lines will depend upon the landscape.

→ If the land has a steep climb then the contour lines will be near to each other.

→ Maps help us to understand the nature of the terrain, where the mountains are, where the valleys are, etc.

→ Maps showing heights are very essential when roads or dams have to be constructed.

→ Over a period, scientists observed the high and low levels of the sea and they have come to one calculated average level, which is known as Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.)

→ Map: A map is a representation or a drawing of the total or a part of the earth’s surface drawn on the surface according to a scale.

→ Symbols: A sign, shape, or object which is used to represent something else.

→ Contour line: A contour is a line joining the places with equal heights.

→ Physical Maps: Maps showing natural features of the earth such as mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, and oceans.

→ Scale: Scale is the ratio between an actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on the map.

→ Plan: It is a drawing of a small area on a large scale.

→ Corrections: There are four cardinal points – North, South, East, and West.

→ Sketch: Imaginary or rough drawing drawn without scale.

→ Political Maps: Maps showing cities, towns and villages and different countries and states of the world with their boundaries.

→ Thematic Maps: Maps representing a particular topic or theme.

→ Escarpment: An area of high ground from an area of lower ground is called escarpment.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 16 Forest: Our Life to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 16 Forest: Our Life

→ Forests provide habitat to wildlife.

→ Forests help in causing rain.

→ They keep the surroundings clean.

→ Forests are an important source of timber, fuelwood, cane, resins, lac, oils, fruits, nuts, honey, etc.

→ Forests serve as the lungs of our earth.

→ Besides animals and plants, forests have been a home of people as well from ancient times.

→ People usually live in places in the forest where water is available.

→ We obtain various things and materials from the forest.

→ A forest is a good habitat for many plants and animals.

→ Forest helps in binding soil and protecting it from erosion.

→ People living in forests depend on its products for their livelihood.

→ Social forestry could help overcome deforestation.

→Destroying forests poses threat to the life of animals and plants living there as well as our own survival.

→ Orchard: A collection of fruit trees.

→ Plantation: Planting trees

→ Timber: Wood for buildings growing trees.

→ Firewood: Wood for fuel.

→ Soil erosion: Removal of topsoil by wind, water, or any other means.

→ Bunds: Constructs made to retain soil moisture

→ Deforestation: Cutting the forests

→ Tribe: A group of people, often of related families, who live together, sharing the same languages, culture, and history.

→ In 1730 AD about 350 Bishonois led by Amrita Devi sacrificed their lives to protect sacred green Kejari trees by hugging them when a king Wanted to cut those trees later this was led to the Chipko movement in history. Thereafter this practice has been carrying forwárd by people like Sunder Lai Bahuguna.

→ Savante Arrhenius:
Arrhenius was born in the year 1859. A Swedish chemist is well known for his theory of Acids and Bases. According to him, an acid is a substance that produces W ions in an aqueous solution where a base is a substance that produces OH^– ions in an aqueous solution. He died in 1927.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 15 Soil: Our Life to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 15 Soil: Our Life

→ The soil supports all plants, animals, and microorganisms.

→ Almost all the things in our surroundings directly or indirectly depend on soil.

→ Soil is also an essential component of our lives.

→ Most of our daily life activities are closely related to soil.

→ We use soil for various purposes.

→ Soil is good habitat.

→ We depend on soil for agriculture, construction purposes, making utensils, toys, etc Making pots by using soil is called pottery.

→ If the proportion of large-sized particles is more, we call the soil sandy.

→ If the proportion of fine particles is more the soil is clay.

→ If large and fine particles are present in equal proportions, the soil is called loam.

→ Water passing down through the soil particles is called percolation.

→ Soil is made up of distinct horizontal layers.

→ Soil is formed slowly as rock erodes into tiny pieces near the earth’s surface.

→ During heavy winds, we observe that the surface soil particles are carried away by air. It is very important to preserve the fertility of the soil.

→ Soil is a mixture of rock particles and humus.

→ Clay, loam, and sand are types of soil.

→ The amount of water that passes through gives us a percolation rate. It is highest in the sandy soil and least in the clayey soil.

→ The water holding capacity of a soil depends on soil type.

→ Clay and loam are suitable for growing in sandy loam or black soil.

→ The soil profile is a section through different layers of the soil.

→ Removal of topsoil by wind, water, or any other means is known as soil erosion.

→ Clay: a type of soil that can be easy to roll into a ball or ring and not cracked

→ Humus: rich dark organic material in the soil.

→ Loamy: a medium-textured soil containing a mixture of large and small mineral particles. (rich soil)

→ Sandy: very fine loose fragment of crushed rock.

→ Percolation: filtér, especially through small holes.

→ Water retention: water holding capacity.

→ Soil profile: a form of soil.

→ Soil fertility: production of vegetation in soil.

→ Soil erosion: removal of topsoil by wind, water, or any other means.

→ Crop rotatIon: a plant cultivated on a large scale for its produce.

→ Making pots by using soil is called a pottery. This is an ancient creative occupation. During the Harappan civilization, different varieties of designer pots and clay utensils were used. Pottery is a cottage industry in our country. Potters make pots by using clay soil on a pottery wheel.

→ Soil Formation: Soil is formed slowly as a rock (the parent material) erodes into tiny pieces near the Earth’s surface. Organic matter decays and mixes with inorganic material (rock particles, minerals, and water) to form soil. These days farmers test the soil in the field using soil technologies in order to grow suitable crops in the fields. Engineers also test the soil profile before constructing multi-storeyed buildings, bridges, and dams.

→ Soil Science:
Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the Earth. This includes Soil formation, Classification, and mapping, physical-chemical- biological and fertility properties of soil.

Sometimes terms that refer to branches of soil such as pedology and edaphology are used as if Syno with soil science. The study of the formation, chemistry, more and classification of soil is called pedology’. The study of ii of soil on organisms, especially on plants is called edaphology.

The diversity of names associated with this discipline is related to the various associations concerned. Indeed engineers, agronomists, chemists, geologists, physical geographers, ecologists, biologists, microbiologists, silviculturists, archeologists all contribute to further knowledge of soil and the advancement of soil science.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 14 Water – Too Little To Waste to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 14 Water – Too Little To Waste

→ We are not aware of the need to preserve freshwater.

→ Water resources are not being increased along with the population and their needs.

→ Sewage is a liquid waste.

→ The impurities in water are called contaminants.

→ Nitrates, Phosphates, metals… etc are the inorganic impurities in water.

→ Air is pumped into clarified water to help aerobic bacteria to grow.

→ Aeration causes organisms that break down waste to grow faster thus it leads to what is called a ‘Biological process’.

→ We can conserve water by adopting certain good practices.

→ Only one percent of all water resources is available freshwater.

→ The available resource of fresh water is getting depleted at a very fast pace due to different human activities.

→ Wastewater is generated at homes, industries, etc. by different human activities.

→ All the wastewater released by homes, industries, hospitals, offices, and other users is collectively called Sewage.

→ Sewage is a liquid waste. Most of it is water, which has dissolved and suspended impurities, disease-causing bacteria, and other microbes.

→ Sewage water contains inorganic, organic, and bacterial as well as other microbial contaminants.

→ Wastewater is treated in treatment plants.

→ Physical, chemical, and biological processes are involved in the treatment of wastewater at the treatment plants.

→ Chlorine kills harmful disease-causing organisms present in wastewater.

→ Aeration allows the growth of microbes that break down wastes.

→ Different types of drainage systems are open, closed, and underground.

→ Septic tanks also help in wastewater disposal.

→ Water should be treated before being released to water bodies.

→ Water must be conserved by individual efforts as well as through efforts made by the community.

→ Sewage: Liquid waste drained from houses, etc. for disposal

→ Wastewater: Water not useful for drinking

→ Contaminants: Pollutants

→ Septic tank: A type of tank used in houses for human excreta.

→ Drainage s3stem: Arrangement made to carry out wastewater and other material from homes.

→ Percolation tank: The tank which is used for filtration.

→ Contour trenches: An outline, especially of something curved ditch.

→ Bar screen: Rags, sUcks, cans, plastic packets, etc. removes from the waste wat€

→ Grit: Particles of stone or lending, relentless

→ Check dam: A type of dam constructed across a minor channel.

→ Rockfill dam: To conserve water to revive the forest area

→ Activated sludge: Cleaned sludge

→ On World Water Day, that is 22 March 2005, the period 2005-2015 was declared as the International Decade for action on “Water for Life”.

→ Homi Jehangir Bhabha:
Bhabha was born on October 30, 1909, in a wealthy Paris family. Even as a child he was interested in science. In fact, he studied the special theory of relativity in his 16th year. By that time nobody could understand that theory clearly. Jawaharlal Nehru wanted to make India self-sufficient in science and technology and he gave Bhabha a free hand to do what he wanted.

In 1948 the Atomic Energy Commission was set up and Bhabha made its Chairman. He was a man of refined taste and this way very evident whether it was the. choice of design for the building of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research or the site for the Ooty radio telescope.

He died in a plane crash at the age of 57. In 1967 the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay, was renamed the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre as a tribute to his dedication and work.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 13 Seed Dispersal to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 13 Seed Dispersal

→ After fertilization ovary develops as fruit.

→ Ovules develop into seeds.

→ When seeds germinate they give birth to new plants.

→ To avoid competition with the mother plant for air, water, and minerals, plants disperse their seeds to different distances.

→ Seeds of caltrops have light and hairy structures at one end.

→ Seeds that are dispersed through the air are usually light and are either very small or are light with wings on them.

→ In plants like maple, seeds have wing-like outgrowths.

→ The seeds adapted to float on water are usually light.

→ The entire coconut fruit floats on water and moves from one place to another.

→ Some seeds are sticky and get stuck to the beaks of birds and in course of flight they fall down at distant places.

→ People transfer seeds from one place to another.

→ A mustard plant produces more than 10,000 seeds in its lifetime.

→ Seeds are carried from one place to another so that they get suitable conditions to grow, this is called the dispersal of seeds.

→ Seed dispersal is essential for the survival of plants.

→ Seeds are of different shapes and sizes and structures on them that help in dispersal.

→ Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, birds, and animals.

→ Dispersal: Disband, separate.

→ Bursting: Break suddenly and violently apart.

→ Mechanism: A part of the machinery.

→ Fleshy fruit: The fruit has a rich plump which is thought and soft. ex: Mango

→ Germinate: Begin or cause to.

→ Survival: Continue to live or exist.

→ Condition: State of affairs, situation.

→ Excretion: Expel waste matter from the body.

→ Capsule: A small container with medicine inside which you swallow

→ Notice: Attention, heed, note.

→ A mustard plant produces more than 10.000 seeds in its lifetime. If all the seeds germinate to grow into adult plants, think how many seeds would be produced. If this happens for a period of six years the entire globe will be covered with mustard plants!

→ Archimedes:

• Archimedes, the father of modern mathematics lived during 287-212 B.C There is no school for the boy who does not know the story of Aim’discovery of the Principle of Displacement.
• Archimedes’ military inventions were spectacular. He devised cranes and multiplies which would enable a single man to lift the enemy’s vessels out of water.
• He was so absorbed in Geometry that he died unaware of a Roman soldier who ran his sword through him.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 12 Reproduction in Plants to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 12 Reproduction in Plants

→ Thalamus is the seat on which the parts of the flower are present.

→ Above the thalamus, there is a green tube-like structure called the calyx.

→ Androecium and Gynoecium are the male and female parts of flowers.

→ A sunflower is actually a bunch of flowers.

→ The small flowers in the bunch are called ‘florets’.

→ A flower that has four or more whorls is called a complete flower.

→ A flower in which any of these four whorls is missing is an incomplete flower.

→ A flower that has either stamens or pistils is called a unisexual flower.

→ A flower that has both stamens and pistil is a bisexual flower.

→ The process of pollen grains reaching the stigma from another is known as pollination.

→ The flower consists of four parts. Sepal, Petal, Stamen and Pistil.

→ Based on the presence and absence of floral parts flowers are two types. Complete flower and Incomplete flower.

→ Based on the presence of both or single sexual parts flowers are of two types. Bisexual flowers and Unisexual flowers.

→ Transfer of pollen grains from another to stigma is known as pollination. Flowers can be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated.

→ The fusion of male and female parts to form a zygote is called Fertilization.

→ On the basis of parts involved, reproduction in plants is of two types, sexual reproduction, and asexual reproduction.

→ The production of offspring from the zygote is called sexual reproduction.

→ The formation of new plants without sexual reproduction is Asexual reproduction.

→ Cutting: Notch, gash dividing into pieces.

→ Androecium: Male reproductive organ.

→ Gynoecium: Female reproductive organ.

→ Thalamus: Swollen head on the stalk of a flower.

→ Corolla: Attractive organ in a flower.

→ Calyx: Protective organ in a flower.

→ Stamen: The male organ of flowers that furnishes the pollen or fecundating dust.

→ Pistil: The seed-bearing organ of a flower.

→ Anther: Part of a flower’s stamen containing pollen.

→ Filament: Thread, fiber.

→ Budding: The production of buds on plants (Undeveloped flower).

→ Zygote: The diploid cell resulting from the union of a haploid spermatozoon and ovum.

→ Vegetative Propagation: Production of a new plant from vegetative parts of a plant.

→ Spore: Minute reproductive body of some plants.

→ Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from another to stigma.

→ FertilizatIon: Make fertile, enrich.

→ Birds and insects are the natural agents of pollination. Nowadays farmers use pesticides to control pests on crops. The enormous use of pesticides kills insects also. It affects pollination. Crop yield becomes reduced particularly in sunflower crops. The rate of pollination is reduced because of the lack of insects in the fields. Think! How we destroy our beautiful nature.

→ Alexander Fleming a Scottish scientist, discovered that a certain kind of mold (Penicillium) produces a substance, named after the mold, called Penicillin, which can destroy many kinds of disease-causing bacteria. Penicillin came to be known as an antibiotic and saved the lives of many soldiers in World War II.

→ Johannes Kepler:
Johannes Kepler was a student and associate of Tycho, but he was a contrast to the latter. While Tyclio was rich, robust, noble, passionate, and an inquisitive mechanical and experimental genius, Kepler was in penury, sickly, and a poor experimenter.

Tycho was an average in Mathematics, his disciple was an expert in the subject Kepler was a man of indomitable perseverance and overcame all his deficiencies and misfortunes to attain a high rank among the scientific men.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 8 Production and Management of Food From Plants to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 8 Production and Management of Food From Plants

→ The plants which are grown in large numbers to get useful products are known as Crops.

→ The process of yielding crops is called Agriculture.

→ For some crops like Jowar, red gram takes a minimum of 180 days or more for harvesting. Such crops are called Long term crops.

→ Some crops like green gram, black gram take 100 days for harvesting and are called Short term crops.

→ The crops grown in the rainy season are termed Kharif.

→ The crops that are grown only in winter are called Rabi.

→ Rice is the prime, most essential, and important staple food crop and also called global grain.

→ Rice was cultivated in the late Mesolithic period (9000 – 8000 B.C.) and in the Harappan civilization (2300 BC).

→ The paddy growing field is divided into so many plots (Kayyalu or Madulu).

→ In general, farmers start agricultural work before the monsoon reaches (May, June months).

→ Before growing crops plowing the soil properly is necessary. The wooden plow is used for plowing.

→ Agricultural practices are preparing the soil sowing of seeds, applying manure, irrigation, weeding, crop harvesting, and storage.

→ The selection of seeds is an important step in Agriculture.

→ National seed Development Corporation of India preserves and promotes different varieties of seeds.

→ Generally, farmers medicating seeds before making them germinate.

→ Nowadays farmers use the sophisticated seed drill used with the help of tractors.

→ Paddy planter is useful for farmers who cultivate paddy in large areas.

→ Wheat, Paddy, and sugarcane are generally affected by fungal diseases.

→ A farmer used a pesticide Dithane M-45 and Eldrige.

→ Manure is two types

1. Natural
2. Artificial.

→ Generally, farmers should use fertilizers keeping in view with the nature of the soil and the crops he wants to grow.

→ Paddy requires a high quantity of water.

→ Nowadays pumps are commonly used for lifting water, diesel, biogas, electricity is used to run these pumps.

→ Crop: The plants which are grown in large numbers to get useful products are known as crops.

→ Agriculture: The process of yielding crops ¡s called Agriculture.

→ Crop production: The production of crops.

→ Long-term crops: Some crops like Jowar, red gram takes a minimum of 180 days are called long-term crops.

→ Short-term crops: Some crops like green gram, black gram takes 100 days for harvest are called short term crops.

→ Kharif season: The crops grown in the rainy season are termed as Kharif season.

→ Rabi season: The crops that are grown only in the winter season.

→ Night duration: Duration of night.

→ Global grain: Rice is the prime, most essential, and important staple food also called global grain.

→ Plowing: Before growing crops plowing the soil is necessary which makes the soil loose.

→ Plots: Small piece of land. The form land ¡s made blocks or plots which is easier to leveling the form land and water for the crop.

→ Leveling: After plowing the fields have a lot of ups and downs. So leveler is are used to level the soil.

→ Sowing: Planting seeds %n the soiL

→ Selection: Before sowing farmers select healthy seeds which give healthy crops.

→ Seed crisis: Sometimes the rate of germination of the seeds Is not up to the mark. Sometimes never germinate. At sometimes they grow Into plants, but they are sterile.

→ Sprouting: When seeds are soaking in the water they germinate and produce the shoot.

→ Seed dispersal: The method of spreading seeds away from the parent plant for better germination.

→ Broadcasting: The method of dispersing the seeds by sprinkling.

→ Seed drill: It is an instrument used to sow seeds in the soil.

→ Nursery plot: Farmers develop seeds beds to grow paddy plantlets (Naru) in a plot, which needs to have their roots constantly submerged in water. They are to be uprooted and transplanted throughout the field (neatly).

→ Manure: The nutrients that enrich the fertility of the soil for the proper growth of plants.

→ PesticIdes: To control or kill the pests like grasshoppers and aphids, which damage crops and grains farmers use pesticides.

→ Paddy planter: It is easy to maintain proper distance sowing the seedlings. It is time-saving, ¡t is useful for farmers who cultivate paddy.

→ Biofertilizers: This is formed by decomposing plant and animal wastes. This is also called Natural Manure.

→ Chemical fertilizers: The manure which are prepared ¡n factories by using chemicals and is also called artificial manure.

→ Irrigation: The process of watering crop plants ¡n the field is known as irrigation.

→ Furrow irrigation: In this method of irrigation, the water is allowed to enter the field through channels, or furrows are made between two rows of crops.

→ Basin irrigation: The field is just filled with water as in the case of paddy.

→ Sprinklers: A modern device of watering plants.

→ Drip irrigation: When the availability of water is poor the water is made to reach the plants drop by drop.

→ Weeding: Removal of undesirable plants (weeds) which grow along with crop plants.

→ Weedicides: When crops are fully grown and may not be suitable for uprooting weeds, farmers use weedicides like 2-4 D’chloro phenoxy acetic acid to control or kill the weeds.

→ Harvesting: Collecting grains from the crop by cutting the matured plant is called harvesting.

→ Threshing: The dry plant’s stocks are beaten on a hard surface to remove the grain.

→ Winnowing: In winnowing the grains are poured out of a basket or tray held high up the wind blows the chaff, dust, and lighter seeds aside, while the heavy grains collect below.

→ Cold storage units: Here the vegetables, fruits, tamarind, chilies, and other products that are usually damaged and decolored within a short time.

→ Godowns: The place where the storage of dry grains to protect them from pests and microorganisms.

→ The name Oryza for paddy- which was named by Linnaeus. Thousands of varieties of paddy are available throughout the world. Oryza sativa is cultivated in Asia. Oryza glaberrima is cultivated in Africa. Oryza Glumaepatuia is cultivated in America. In our state, we have hundreds of varieties of paddy. Molagolukulu is the traditional good variety that is grown in coastal areas of Nellore. Amrita Sari, Bangaru Teega, Kolleti Kusuma, Potti Basangi, Sona Masuri are some of our traditional varieties.

→ In 1960 Rachael Carson wrote a book called ‘silent spring’ in which she pointed out the dangers of pesticides. Pesticides get into the bodies of microscopic plants and animals in the soil and water. When these plants and animals are eaten by fish the pesticides get into their bodies. Even if the fish are not seriously poisoned with each successive meal pesticides buildup inside their bodies.

A bird that eats these fish might get a concentrated lethal dose. DDT also accumulates in the eggshells weakening them and making the shells break before hatching. There are just two out of the numerous ways that pesticides are eaten, passed down the food chain, and accumulate in the bodies of higher animals including human beings causing sickness and sometimes death. Think, how dangerous the pesticides are…!

→ Paddy requires a high quantity of water. That is why paddy is grown in areas where plenty of water is available. Because of marketing and supporting prices, paddy is grown all over the country irrespective of water availability. For this farmers dig bore wells and use groundwater wherever water is not sufficient. There is a need to shift to those crops which require less water. In some areas, recently farmers grow fish in paddy growing fields.

→ To meet the food requirement of the growing population there should be an increase in the cultivated land. But nowadays parts of the agricultural land in rural areas remain uncultivated land because of the non-availability of seeds, power, water supply, market problems. Farmers thinking that agriculture is a non-profitable task.

Actually, agriculture is the flesh and blood of our country. So the young generation should develop more passion towards agriculture which would be the only beneficial profession in near future.

→ Antonie Philips Van Leeuwenhoek
Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek was born (October24,1637-August 26, 1723) was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. He was commonly known as “the father of microbiology” and considered to be the first microbiologist. He is best known for his work on the improvement of microscopes, he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules and which are now referred to as microorganisms. He was also the first to record microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa, and blood flow in capillaries. Leeuwenhoek made more than 500 optical lenses. He also created at least 25 microscopes, of different types, of which only nine survive. His microscopes were made of silver or copper fir cones, holding hand-made lenses. Those who have survived are capable of magnification up to 275 times. His scientific research was of remarkably high quality.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 7 Different Ecosystems to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 7 Different Ecosystems

→ The word ecosystem was first used in 1935 by A.G. Tansley a British Botanist and Ecologist.

→ Nature works as a system in which organisms and their communities are influenced by many non-living environmental factors.

→ An ecosystem can be defined as a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment.

→ Living things like plants, animals and microorganisms are known as biotic components of the ecosystem.

→ Soil, water, sunlight etc. are called abiotic components of the ecosystem.

→ There is a feeding relationship between plants and animals.

→ There is an interdependence between plants and animals for space, reproduction, shelter etc.

→ Scientists describe the way energy moves through the ecosystem, they use the term food chains.

→ Several plants, algae use sunlight to make their food and are called producers.

→ Consumers eat other living things and get their energy from them.

→ Decomposers feed on the wastes of plants and animals after they die. They retain nutrients to the soil for the plants to use as the cycle begin again.

→ Mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems on earth, deriving nourishment from terrestrial fresh water and tidal saltwater.

→ A living community cannot live in isolation.

→ The existence of the living world depends upon the flow of energy and the circulation of materials through the ecosystem.

→ A food chain consists of four steps – the producers – primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers.

→ The energy accumulated by plants in an ecosystem is called Primary production.

→ The total energy produced during photosynthesis is the Gross Primary production.

→ Only a small part of the energy is fixed in the form of chemical potential energy in the protoplasm.

→ Habitat: Habitat is the Natural living place of an organism or a group of organisms. Land and water are the major habitats.

→ Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a Natural unit and has both abiotic and biotic components which interact and influence each other.

→ Food web: A food web consists of several interlinked food chains and each organism in a food web will be a member of more than one food chain.

→ Producers: Plants are the only organisms capable of carrying out photosynthesis and producing food for all living organisms in any ecosystem. For this reason, plants are called producers.

→ Consumers: The organisms which consume the food produced by plants are called consumers. Ex: Animals.

→ Decomposers: Some of the organisms, obtain their nutritional requirements by decomposing the dead bodies of both producers and consumers of the ecosystem are called Decomposers. Ex: Bacteria, Fungi.

→ Rodents: Rodents are herbivorous or omnivorous mammals with one pair of chisel-line incisor teeth projecting from each jaw at the front of the mouth and specialized for continuous gnawing. Ex: rat, squirrel etc.

→ Flora and Fauna: All the plants of a particular place and all the animals that live wild in a particular area is called flora and fauna.

→ Thermophile: Describing microorganisms that require high temperatures around 60°C for growth.

→ Mangroves: Mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems and the changes take place in an ecosystem.

→ Energy flow: All the organisms in an ecosystem derive energy from food to live.

→ Nocturnals: The animals which are active during the night. Ex: bat.

→ Biotic components: The living things like plants, animals and microorganisms are known as biotic components.

→ Abiotic components: Soil, water, sunlight etc. are called abiotic components.

→ In Ecosystem, we study the changes occurring in the habitat like organisms moving away from the habitat or entering the habitat.

It is said that there are more microorganisms in the sea than there are stars in the universe. The world’s oceans host 32 of the 34 known phyla on earth and ocean be¬tween 5,00,000 and 10 million marine species. Species diversity is as high as 1000 per square metre in the Indo-Pacific Ocean and new oceanic species are continuously being discovered.

→ Sir Isaac Newton:
Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727) was an English Physicist and Mathematician who was widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophic Naturalis Principia Mathematica (“Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”). First published

Newton Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists. View of the physical universe for the next three centuries. It also demonstrated that the motion of objects on the Earth and that of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles. By deriving Kepler’s laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the cosmos.

Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours of the visible spectrum.