AP State Board Notes

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 3 Story of Microorganisms 2 to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 3 Story of Microorganisms 2

→ Some microorganisms are useful and some microorganisms are harmful.

→ Microbes are useful in home, industry, cleaning the environment.

→ Soil microbes degrade organic wastes into useful nutrients. This helps plants in their growth and development.

→ Some microorganisms cause diseases in humans, plants, and other animals.

→ Some insects and animals act as vectors of microbes.

→ Some microbes release toxins in improperly preserved food, which causes food poisoning.

→ Pasteurization helps in milk preservation.

→ The bacteria ‘rhizobium’ present in root nodules of leguminous plants fixes atmo¬spheric Nitrogen.

→ Microorganisms are useful to human beings in a number of ways.

→ Lactic acid bacteria help in the curdling of milk.

→ The ripening of cheese is due to bacteria.

→ Some bacteria help the plants by providing them with nitrates that are obtained by fixing atmospheric nitrogen.

→ Fermentation, for the production of alcohol, is due to yeasts.

→ Antibiotics are obtained from certain fungi like penicillium.

→ Lactobacilli Plus: Gram-positive facultative anaerobic or microaerophilic rod-shaped bacteria. Most of its members convert lactose and other sugars to lactic acid.

→ Penicillium: Penidiilum ¡s a genus of ascomycetous fungi of major importance in the natural environment as well as food and drug production. Members of the genus produce penicillin, a molecule that is used as an antibiotic, which kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria inside the body.

→ Fermentation: The anaerobic conversion of sugar to carbon dioxide and alcohol by yeast.

→ Sterilization: The act of making an organism barren or infertile (unable to reproduce).

→ Vaccination: An antigenic preparation used to stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity against a disease.

→ Bacillus: Bacillus Thuringiensis (or Bt) is a Gram-positive, Coldwell bacterium, Thuringiensis commonly used as a biological pesticide; alternatively, the toxin may be extracted and used as a pesticide.

→ Pathogens vectors: Any agent that is capable of causing a disease ¡s called a pathogen. A vector is any agent (person, animal, or microorganism) that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism.

→ Pasteurization: Partial sterilization of foods at a temperature that destroys harmful microorganisms without major changes in the chemistry of the food.

→ Symbiosis: Symbiosis “together” and “living” is close and often long-term interaction between two or more different biological species.

→ Vaccine: An antigenic preparation used to stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity against a disease.

→ Smallpox: Smallpox is a disease caused by a poxvirus that is transmitted from person to person that causes high fever, characteristic rash, and may kill about one-third of infected.

→ Aids: AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is the final stage of HIV disease, which causes severe damage to the immune system.

→ Amoebiasis: Infection by a disease-causing amoeba. Amoebic dysentery.

→ Anthrax: An infectious, usually fatal disease of warm-blooded animals, especially of cattle and sheep, caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis.

→ Antibiotics: Substances that killed bacteria were generally named antibiotics.

→ Antibodies: Substances that fight against disease-causing organisms.

→ Botulism: Clostridium botulinum is a bacterium that is widely responsible for causing food poisoning. The disease is known as Botulism.

→ Chickenpox: Chickenpox is a highly Infectious disease characterized by a fever and rash.

→ Communicable diseases: Diseases that spread through from infected people to healthy ones.

→ Conjunctivitis: Conjunctivitis is swelling (inflammation) or infection of the membrane lining the eyelids (conjunctiva).

→ Decompose: Broken down of organic matter physically and chemically by bacterial or fungal action or rot.

→ Garbage: Waste of vegetables, fruits, food, and other domestic materials.

→ Germ theory: The theory that all contagious diseases are caused by microorganisms.

→ Leguminous: Plants belonging to pulses like red gram, green gram, etc.

→ Malaria: Malaria is a parasitic disease that involves high fevers, shaking chills, flu-like symptoms, and anemia. Transmitted by a mosquito.

→ Molasses: Thick, dark brown, uncrystallized juice obtained from raw sugar during the refining process.

→ Septicemia: Septicemia is bacteria in the blood (bacteremia) that often occurs with severe infections. Symptoms: Septicemia can begin with: Chills; High fever; Rapid breathing; Rapid heart rate. The person looks very ill.

→ Sewage: Wastewater and excrement conveyed in sewers.

→ Smear: A mark or streak of a greasy or sticky substance.

→ Swine flu: Swine flu (swine influenza) is a respiratory disease caused by viruses (influenza viruses) that infect the respiratory tract of pigs and result in nasal secretions, etc.

→ Transgenic: Being an organism whose genome has been altered by the transfer of a gene or genes from another species.

→ Breed: Transgen/cm/ce;transgen/cp/ants. (Genome = The complete set of the genetic material of an organism).

→ Tuberculosis: It is a contagious bacterial infection that involves the lungs, but may spread to other organs.

→ Typhoid: Typhoid fever is an acute illness associated with fever that is most often caused by the Salmonella typhi bacteria.

→ We must use antibiotics prescribed by a qualified doctor. If you use antibiotics with¬out consulting a qualified doctor it may harm you. The unnecessary use of antibiotics affects blood cells that fight infections. Sometimes they may kill useful bacteria too in our intestine and this increases the resistance towards antibiotics. Excess use of antibiotics weakens the body.

→ Inventor of Aureomycin: This is the picture of Dr. Yellapreggada Subba Rao. He was born in the West Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh state, India. He discovered Aureomycin i.e. tetracycline which cures a number of bacterial diseases like Typhoid, Plague, Tuberculosis, etc. 11 mm

→ Dr. Jonas Salk discovered the vaccine for Polio in 1952. He wanted to distribute it freely to everyone. So he never patented his polio vaccine. Dr. Albert Sabin discovered the oral polio vaccine in 1957.

→ What is Bt?
Bt means Bacillus Thuringiensis is the name of a bacterium. It produces a toxin that kills pests on plants or crops. The bacterium is used as bio-pesticide. In transgenic crop plants, this toxin-producing gene was separated from the bacterium and transferred into the crop plants. So this can protect it from pests. For example B.t. cotton.

→ Dr. Ronald Ross discovered that female Anopheles mosquitoes are carriers of the causative Microorganism (parasite) for Malaria. For this discovery, Dr. Ronald Ross got Nobel Prize in 1902. He discovered it in Secunderabad. For the full story of the discovery of Ross. Refer to the annexure for more details.

→ Clostridium botulinum is a bacterium that is widely responsible for causing food poisoning. The disease is known as botulism. Vomiting and diarrhea are the symptoms of food poisoning. it may lead to death.

→ Dr. Ronald Ross:
Ronald Ross was born on May 13, 1857, as the son of Sir C.C.G. Ross, a General in the English army. He commenced the study of medicine at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital in London in 1875; entered the Indian Medical Service in 1881. He commenced the study of malaria in 1892. In 1894 he determined to make an experimental investigation in India of the hypothesis ofLaveran and Manson that mosquitoes are connected with the propagation of the disease. After two and a half years’ failure, Ross succeeded in demonstrating the life-cycle of the parasites of malaria in mosquitoes, thus establishing the hypothesis ofLaveran and Manson.

Malaria’S Conqueror and the mosquito he defeated are affectionately caricatured in a 1908 carton published by a newspaper in the British colony of Mauritius. The colony’s hero was Sir Ronald Ross, A British Army surgeon, who had proved nine years earlier that malaria was transmitted by the bite of the Anopheles mosquito, and not by malaria (Italian for “bad air”). Where malaria had spread with increasing ferocity for 40 years, Ross ordered that the mosquito-breeding swamps drain, and thus halted the epidemic.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 5 Metals and Non-Metals to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 5 Metals and Non-Metals

→ The material which show brightness on the surface and reflect the light are called lustrous and which do not shine are called non-lustrous material.

→ The property of materials by which they can be beaten into thin sheets is called malleability.

→ The property of drawing material to make fine wires is called ductility.

→ The ability of materials to produce a particular sound when it is dropped on the hard surface is called sonorous.

→ Metals often possess all of the following properties. They are lustrous, hard, malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity, and sonorous.
E.g.: Copper, magnesium, aluminum, iron, zinc, etc.

→ If Most of the metals exist in a solid-state except mercury which exists in a liquid state.

→ Some metals react with the components of air in a different manner with different rates and different conditions.

→ Gold and platinum are metals that do not react with air.

→ Metals react with acids and liberate hydrogen gas.

→ Non-metals do not react with water and acids.

→ Metals can displace each other according to their reactivity.

→ On burning metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxides which are basic in nature.

→ On burning non-metals react with oxygen to produce non-metal oxides which are acidic in nature.

→ Metals and non-metals are used widely in everyday life.

→ Metals: The material which is hard, lustrous, malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity and are sonorous are called metals.

→ Non-metals: The material which are soft, non-lustrous, non-malleable, non-ductile, bad conductors of heat and electricity, and ore non-sonorous are called non-metals.

→ Lustrous: The material which shows brightness on the surface and reflects the light is called lustrous.

→ Sonority: The property of producing particular sound materials.

→ Malleability: The property by which metals can be flattered into thin sheets is called malleability

→ Ductility: The property by which metals càn be drawn into fine fires is called ductility.

→ Good conductors of heat and electricity: The material which easily allows the passage of electricity and heat through them are called good conductors of heat and electricity.

→ Oxides of metals and non-metals: When we burn metals or non-metals in the presence of oxygen they form metallic oxides or non-metallic oxides.

→ Displacement reaction: The reaction ¡n which a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound in an aqueous solution.

→ Sonorous: The ability of materials to produce a particular sound when ¡t ¡s dropped on the hard surface is called sonorous.

→ James Smithson Tennant (1761 – 1815):

• This is the man who discovered iridium back in 1804.
• Eminent Cambridge professor in chemistry who first isolated osmium and iridium from native platinum deposits.
• He also identifIes pro of diamond and charcoaL
• The mineral tennantite was named after him.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 4 Synthetic Fibres and Plastics to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 4 Synthetic Fibres and Plastics

→ Synthetic fibres and plastics are made of large units called polymers.

→ Polymers are made up of many smaller units.

→ Natural fibres are obtained from plants and animals.

→ Artificial fibres are obtained by chemical processing by petrochemicals.

→ Synthetic fibres find uses ranging from many household articles like ropes, buckets, furniture, containers.

→ Depending upon the type of chemicals used for manufacture there are different synthetic fibres.

→ Commonly used synthetic fibres are rayon, nylon, polyester and acrylic.

→ Rayon is artificial silk made of cellulose fibre.

→ Nylon is made artificially by using raw materials like coal, water and air.

→ Polyester is a synthetic fibre.

→ Acrylic is artificial wool made from coal, air, water, oil and limestone.

→ The different types of fibres differ from one another in their strength, water-absorbing capacity, nature of burning, cost and durability.

→ Synthetic fibres and plastics enveloped our life.

→ The waste created by plastics is not environmentally friendly.

→ On burning plastics release poisonous gases.

→ Plastics take years to decompose. This is because of their non – biodegradable nature.

→ Enjoy the good qualities of synthetic fibres and plastics and reduce the indis¬criminate use of plastics to minimize environmental hazards.

→ Synthetic fibres find uses ranging from household articles to healthcare.

→ Synthetic fibres blend with natural and artificial fibres

→ Acrylic: Acrylic ¡s artificial wool made from coal, air, water, oil and limestone.

→ Synthetic fibre: Artificiàl fibres are also called synthetic fibre.

→ Bakelite: Bakelite is a thermosetting plastic that is a poor conductor of heat and electricity so ¡t is used for making handles of various utensils.

→ Biodegradable: A material which is easily decomposed by natural processes ¡s called biodegradable.

→ Blend: Any synthetic can be combined with two or more other fibres ¡s called blend.

→ Acrylic: Acrylic is artificial wool made from coal, air, water, oil and limestone.

→ Synthetic fibre: Artificial fibres are also called synthetic fibre.

→ Bakelite: Bakelite is a thermosetting plastic that is a poor conductor of heat and electricity so ¡t is used for making handles óf various utensils.

→ Biodegradable: A material that is easily decomposed by natural processes is called biodegradable.

→ Blend: Any synthetic can be combined with Iwo or more other fibres is called blend.

→ Cellulose: The source material obtained from wood pulp is called cellulose.

→ Incinerators: The instruments used for burning plastic.

→ Melamine: It is a thermosetting plastic used for making utensils and groceries.

→ Natural fibres: The fibres which aré made from plants and animals.

→ Non-biodegradable: A material that is not decomposed by natural processes is called non-biodegradable material.

→ Nylon: The polymer is made of chemical units called polyamides

→ Petrochemicals: The chemiçals obtained from petroleum are called petrochemicals.

→ Plastics: Plastics are polymers having linear chains or cross-linked chains.

→ Polymer: Many small, identical units combine to form a large unit called a polymer.

→ Polyamide: Polyamides are polymers made with monomers like hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid.

→ Polythene: Polymer made of small monomers called ethene.

→ Polyester: Polyester is a polymer formed by reacting dicarboxylic acid with a dihydric alcohol

→ Rayon: The artificial fibre obtained from wood pulp

→ Recycling: Recycling is a process to convert broken plastic material into new plastic products

→ Spinneret:‘ Metal ploteš with’ very very tiny holes.

→ Terracotta: The artificial fibre obtained from polymer to make a cloth It s a mixture of terylene and cotton

→ Terylene: The artificial fibre obtained from polymer to make a cloth. Terylene ¡s most popular polyester.

→ Terriwool: Terriwool is an artificial fibre made from polymer It is a mixture of terylene and wool

→ TerriThermoplostcs ‘b”: The plastics which will be deformed easily on heating and can be bent

→ Thermosetting plastic: The plastics which moulded once can’t be softened by heating are called thermosetting plastics.

→ Universal recycling symbol: In a recycling icon if the number that identifies the polymer is omitted then the symbol is called the universal recycling symbol

→ Artificial fibre: The fibre obtained artificially from petrochemicals are called artificial fibres.

→ Silkworm: The insect which produces silk

→ Eugen Baumann (1846 – 1896):

• Polyvinyl chloride was first created by Eugen Baumann.
• He identified the source for aromatic compounds in urine being the aromatic amino acids such as tyrosine.
• He influenced organ o sulphur chemistry by the synthesis

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 3 Story of Microorganisms 1 to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Biology Notes Chapter 3 Story of Microorganisms 1

→ Microorganisms are very minute living things. We cannot see them with our naked eyes.

→ Microorganisms are present everywhere in our surroundings.

→ They live in water, air, soil, and even in ice-cold climates to hot springs.

→ We can see microorganisms with the help of a Microscope.

→ Antonie van Leuwenhoek invented a powerful single lens microscope.

→ Antonie van Leuwenhoek observed small moving organisms under his microscope are called “animalcules”.

→ Animalcules are also named bacteria.

→ Microbes are present everywhere in our surroundings.

→ Bacteria, Fungi, Protozoa, and Algae are major groups of microorganisms. Which lie between living and non-living organisms. They can reproduce only in host living cells.

→ Thiomargarito Nomibiensis is the world’s largest bacteria.

→ Algae like Chara, spirogyra, etc., are macroscopic.

→ Micro arthropods are found on our skin, eyelids, beddings, rugs, etc.

→ Viruses are special types of microorganisms, which lie between living and non-living organisms. They can reproduce only in host living cells.

→ Microorganism: An organism that can be seen only with the help of a microscope and that typically consists of only a single cell.

→ Microscope: An instrument that makes very small objects able to be seen magnifying them greatly.

→ Microbiology: Study of microbes.

→ Bacteria: Organisms not able to be seen except under a microscope, found in rotting matter in the air, in soil, and in living bodies.

→ Fungi: A single-celled or multi-celled organism without chlorophyll that reproduces by spores and lives by absorbing nutrients from organic matter.

→ Protozoa: Any of a large group of single-celled, usually microscopic, eukaryotic organisms such as amoebas, ciliates, flagellates, and sporozoans.

→ Algae: A large group of simple non-flowering plants containing chlorophyll but lacking true stems, roots, leaves, and vascular tissue.

→ Micro Arthropods: Micro arthropod is an invertebrate microscopic animal having an exoskeleton (external skeleton), a segmented body, and jointed appendages.

→ Virus: A virus is the smallest infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of an organism.

→ Discovery: Be find, find out about show, reveal.

→ Invention: The creation of something new, origination.

→ Staining: A dye used to color organic tissue so as to make the structure visible for microscopic examination.

→ Typhoid: Typhoid fever ¡s an acute illness associated with fever that ¡s most often caused by the Salmonella typhi bacteria.

→ Bread Mold: A dense cottony growth of fungus of Rhizopus on bread and other foods.

→ Hay: Grass that has been mown and dried for use as fodder.

→ Decoction: Extracting the flavor or desired substances by boiling.

→ Decompose: Broken down of organic matter physically and chemically by bacterial or fungal action or rot.

→ Scabies: To scratch; Scabies is an easily spread skin disease caused by a very small species of mite.

→ Symptoms: Itching, especially at night; Rashes, especially between the fingers; Sores (abrasions) on the skin from scratching and digging.

→ Polio: Poliomyelitis (Polio) is a viral disease that can affect nerves and can lead to partial or full paralysis.

→ Swine flu: Swine flu (swine influenza) is a respiratory disease caused by viruses (influenza viruses) that infect the respiratory tract of pigs and result in nasal secretions.

→ Conjunctivitis: Conjunctivitis is swelling (inflammation) or infection of the membrane lining the eyelids (conjunctiva).

→ Smallpox: Smallpox is a disease caused by a poxvirus that is transmitted from person to person that causes high fever, characteristic rash, and may kill about one-third of infected.

→ Chickenpox: Chickenpox ¡s a highly infectious disease characterized by a fever and rash.

→ AIDS: AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is the final stage of HIV disease, which causes severe damage to the immune system.

→ Marshy lands: A tract of soft wet land, commonly covered partially or wholly with water.

→ Tuberculosis: It is a contagious bacterial infection that involves the lungs, but may spread to other organs.

→ Septicemia: Septicemia is bacteria in the blood (bacteremia) that often occurs with severe infections.

→ Symptoms: Septicemia can begin with: Chills; High fever; Rapid breathing; Rapid heart rate, the person looks very ill.

→ Malaria: Malaria is a parasitic disease that involves high fevers, shaking chills, flu-like symptoms, and anemia. Transmitted by a mosquito.

→ Amebiasis: Infection by a disease-causing amoeba. Amoebic dysentery.

→ Smear: A mark or streak of a greasy or sticky substance.

→ There are several bacteria growing on our skin. Many of the disease-causing ones live in some symbiotic relations with other Bacteria. There are different kinds of bacteria in our intestine which are useful for indigestion. Bacteria are found everywhere in lacks in soil, water, air, etc. (Recently two types of bacteria in 1997 Heide N. Schulz discovered. The biggest bacteria Thiomargarita Namibiensis found in coastal waters of Namibia (0.75 mm), which can be seen with the unaided eye).

→ Micro arthropods:
Some microarthropods are very important for the soil. They help in increasing soil fertility by decomposing the biomass through digestion which converts the big¬ger compounds into smaller compounds. These are to be found on our skin, eyelids, beddings, rugs, etc.

Some microarthropods cause diseases like scabies e.g.: scabies mites. Actually, these are not microorganisms like bacteria, but they are minute arthropods and also called joint-legged organisms.

→ Soil is highly rich in microorganisms such a bacteria, fungi, protozoa, microarthropods. The top eight inches of the soil of a one-acre area may contain as much as five and a half tons of fungi and bacteria. This is very much useful for growing crops. But excess use of pesticides kills these micro-organisms. We can see them through a mi¬croscope or by growing them in different media.

→ Viruses are an interesting type of microorganisms. They behave like non – living things when they are outside of a living cell. But they behave like living organisms when they are inside host living cells and reproduce just like bacteria, plants, or animals.

Electron Microscopic view of some Viruses

→ They can only be seen through a very powerful electron microscope. Diseases like polio, swine flu, conjunctivitis, smallpox, chickenpox, and AIDS are caused by viruses.

→ Bacterial Staining?
Bacteria are very small/ tiny micro-organisms. We must stain before seeing Bacteria under a Microscope. Smear bacteria on a slide and slightly heat the slide. Then put drops of crystal violet on the slide. After 30 to 60 seconds gently wash the slide. Dry the slide and now watch the slide under the microscope in 25 X or 40 X.

→ Dr. Yellapreggada Subba Rao:
Dr. Yellapreggada Subba Rao was born in the West Goda vañ district of Andhra Pradesh state in India. He was a renowned biochemist arid received several awards for his contributions to the field of medicine. He developed methods for the production of several drugs such as folic acid, tetracycline, and anti-cancer drugs. Tetracycline is used in curing the plague. Dr. Y Subba Roo was considered the Wizard of the wonder drugs.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 3 Matter Around Us to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 3 Matter Around Us

→ The matter is made up of tiny particles, which are small beyond our imagination.

→ Anything in this world that occupies space and has mass is considered as matter.

→ The matter is made up of tiny particles, which are small beyond our imagination

→ Matter exists in these states i.e. solids, liquids and gases.

→ Solids, liquids and gases differ in their properties.

→ Particles of matter move continuously in liquids and gases, known as diffusion.

→ Particles of matter have space between them.

→ The rate of diffusion of gases is higher than that of liquids and solids.

→ Dissolving is a process of occupying the space between liquid particles by solid particles, on the addition of a solid to a liquid.

→ Particles of matter have forces acting between them that keeps the particles together.

→ The force of attraction between the particles is maximum in solids, intermediate in liquids and minimum in gases.

→ The particles are arranged orderly in the case of solids, while particles move randomly in gases.

→ The states of matter can be changed by changing the temperature or pressure.

→ The temperature at which solid melts to become a liquid is called the ‘melting point’.

→ The process of changing solid to liquid is called ‘fusion’.

→ The amount of heat energy that is required to overcome the attraction energy among the particles is given by the latent heat of a substance.

→ The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling point.

→ The phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapours at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.

→ The rate of evaporation depends on the surface area, humidity and wind speed

→ Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in the air.

→ Matter: Anything in this world that occur íes space and has mass is considered as matter Ex: Water, food, air, tables, chairs, etc

→ States of matter: Matter exists in three states. They are solids, liquids and gases. These three differ in their properties.

→ Solid: Solids have a definite shape and ci fixed volume.

→ Liquid: Liquids can get their shape depending on the container. Liquids can flow easily from one container to another. Hence they are called fluids Ex: Water, milk, etc.

→ Gas: Gases neither have a fixed shape nor volume. Ex: Air, CNG, etc.

→ Particles: Matter is made up of tiny particles. Particle ¡s the smallest part of the matter.

→ Diffusion: The particles of matter move continuously in liquids and gases. This movement ¡s called diffusioni1

→ Compressibility: Large volume of gas ¡s compressed into cylinders of the small volume to make it portable. This property is called compressibility. (or) The reciprocal of the bulk modulus of the material.

→ Forces of attraction: The force of attraction between the particles is maximum in solids, intermediate in liquids and minimum in gases.

→ Evaporation: The phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapours at any temperature below its boiling point ¡s called evaporation.

→ Compressed Natural Gas: Natural gas at high volume, compressed into small cylinders, (CNG) so that they can be used in automobiles, etc.

→ Melting point: The temperature at which solid melts to become a liquid is called the melting point.

→ Fusion: The process of melting is called íusion.

→ Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling point.

→ Sublimation: Some substances may change from solid to a gaseous state and vice versa without passing through the liquid state. This is called sublimation. Ex: Iodine, Camphor, etc.

→ Latent heat of fusion: The amount of heat energy that is required to overcome the attraction is given by the latent heat of the substance.

→ Space between particles: Particles of matter has space between them. This space is very high in gases, intermediate in liquids, very low ¡n solids.

→ Dissolving: Solid particles enter into the space between the liquid particles when we add a solid into a liquid. This is called dissolving. Ex: Addition of sugar to water.

→ Thermometer: A thermometer is a device used to measure the temperature of a substance, our body, etc.

→ Humidity: The amount of water vapour present in the air is called humidity.

→ Albert Einstein:

• Albert Einstein was born in 1879 in Germany.
• He is known throughout the world as a man who propounded the famous theory of relativity.
• Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 2 Friction to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 2 Friction

→ Friction opposes the relative motion between two surfaces in contact. It acts on both surfaces.

→ Friction depends on the nature of the surface in contact.

→ For a given pair of surfaces, friction depends upon the state of smoothness of those surfaces.

→ Friction depends on how hard the two surfaces pressed together which is a normal force acting on the body.

→ Friction is independent of the area of contact.

→ Static friction comes into play when we try to move an object at rest relative to another surface or object.

→ Sliding friction comes into play when an object is sliding over another.

→ Sliding friction is smaller than static friction.

→ Friction is important for many of our activities.

→ Friction can be increased by making a surface rough.

→ The sole of the shoes and the tires of the vehicles are threaded to increase friction.

→ Friction is sometimes undesirable.

→ Friction can be reduced by using lubricants.

→ Friction produces heat.

→ When one body rolls over another body, rolling friction comes into play. Rolling friction is smaller than sliding friction.

→ In many machines, friction is reduced by using ball bearings.

→ When bodies move through fluids, fluids exert a frictional force called drag.

→ Fluid friction can be minimized by giving a suitable shape to bodies moving in fluids.

→ Friction: The force which opposes the relative motion of two surfaces of bodies that are in contact.

→ Static friction: The friction which comes into play when surfaces of the objects are at rest relative to each other.

→ Sliding friction: Sliding friction is the friction that comes into play when the surface of one object moves relative to the surface of another object.

→ Lubricants: The substances which reduce friction are called lubricants.

→ Ball bearings: The devices which reduce friction between rotating shafts of machine tools.

→ Drag: The frictional force exerted by fluids is called drag.

→ Fluid friction: Pressure exerted by fluids is called fluid friction.

→ Rolling friction: When one body rolls over the surface of another body, the friction offered ¡s called rolling friction.

→ Fluids: Liquids and gases are called fluids.

→ Leonardo Davinci (1452-1519):

• Leonardo Davinci was one of the first scholars to study friction systematically.
• He realized how important friction is for the working of machines.
• He focussed on all kinds of friction and drew a distinction between sliding friction and rolling friction.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 1 Force to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 1 Force

→ Force is a push or a pull.

→ A force can act on an object with or without being in contact with it.

→ A force acting on the body is either a contact force or a force at a distance.

→ A direction that is perpendicular to the plane of a surface is said to be normal.

→ The force that a solid surface exerts on any object in the normal direction is called the normal force.

→ Tension always pulls the objects along the string.

→ The region in which an object at a point experiences force exerted by another object is called field.

→ The attractive force between any two massive objects is called gravitational force.

→ The force exerted by a magnet on another magnet is called magnetic force.

→ The magnetic force also acts on magnetic material such as iron, nickel.

→ The force exerted by a charged body on another charged or uncharged body is known as electrostatic force.

→ Friction is the force that opposes the relative motion of the surface in contact.

→ The force which we exert by using our body muscles is known as muscular force.

→ Force has magnitude as well as direction.

→ A change in the speed of the object or the direction of its motion or both implies a change in its state of motion.

→ The algebraic sum of all forces acting on a body is known as net force and is denoted before

→ A force can change the state of motion of an object.

→ Force may cause a change in the shape of an object.

→ The force acting on the unit area of a surface is called pressure

→ Force: A push or a pull on an object is called a force.

→ Push: Move forward by using force.

→ Pull: Apply force so as to move it towards oneself or the origin of the force.

→ Contact force: The force existing between two interacting objects is called contact force.

→ Force at a distance: The force which acts between two bodies that are not directly touching each other is called force at a distance.

→ Field: Field ¡s a region ¡n which a force can be experienced by another object placed at any point ¡n that region.

→ Friction: The resistance to the movement of a body over the surface of another body.

→ Muscular force: The force exerted by body muscles is coiled muscular force.

→ Gravitational force: The force which pulls the object towards the earth is called gravitational force or force of gravity.

→ Magnetic force: The force exerted by o magnet on another magnet is called magnetic force.

→ Electrostatic force: The force exerted by a charged body on another charged or uncharged body is known as electrostatic force.

→ Net force: The algebraic sum of all the forces acting on a body is known as the net force.

→ Magnitude: The size of a quantity is called magnitude.

→ Equilibrium: A state in which opposing forces are balanced.

→ Normal force: The force that a solid force exerts on any object in the normal direction ¡s called the normal force.

→ Tension: The tightness of rope or string when it is stretched is called tension.

→ State of motion: A change ¡n the speed of an object or the direction of its motion or both is called its state of motion.

→ Pressure: The force acting perpendicularly on a unit area of a surface is called pressure.

→ Free body diagram: The diagram showing all the forces acting on an object at a particular instant is called the free body diagram.

→ Magnetic field: The space around the magnet where its influence can be detected s called the magnetic field

→ Sir Isaac Newton:

• A British Physicist and Mathematician of high repute studied the color and composition of white light
• His studies on planetary motion led to his famous universal law of gravitation.
• He formulated three fundamental laws of mechanics called Newton‘s laws of motion.
• His main works are Principia and optics.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 20 Folk Religion to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 20 Folk Religion

→ When children fall ill repeatedly when people are sick and very weak they worship the folk goddesses by offering Bonalu and sacrificing a cock, or they go to the Pir Baba’s Dargah and ask the Maulvi to tie ataWiz. tt is a general scene in villages.

→ There are a large number of village deities.

→ Pochamma is the most popular folk goddess of Andhra Pradesh. Near every village, a small shrine is dedicated to her. The main goddess is in the form of stone under a neem tree.

→ People worship the goddess Pochanima by offering bonuses.

→ Katta Maisamma is a goddess of water and is worshipped in the form of a small stone on the tank bund. With Her blessings, the crops flourish.

→ Once in five years, a major festival is celebrated in which sheep, goats, and hens are sacrificed.

→ Gangamma is also considered a water goddess who protects fishermen who go out into the sea.

→ Yellamma is also called Polimeramma, Maritemma, Renuka, Mahankali, Jogamma, Somalamma, etc.

→ Yellarnma, the goodness, guards the boundaries of the village and will not allow any disease or evil Village.

→ A devotee of ‘Devi becomes a deity and is called Paidi thalli. In Northern Andhra ‘Paidi thaTti Ammavart Jafthara is celebrated.

→ The farmers of Andhra Pradesh believe that Potharaju looks after their agricultural lands arid crops and products the crops from dreadful diseases, thieves and animals.

→ Beerappa and Katamaraju are worshipped by cowherd and shepherd communities. They are considered protectors of cattle and sheep.

→ Many office folk gods and goddesses were actually local heroes who either died fighting for the defense of their people or were wronged by the powerful people of their times.

→ Sammakka and Sarakka (Medaram) Jatara is celebrated at Medaram village of Taadwai Mandal in Warangal district. Nearly one crore people attend it.

→ The Medaram Jatara is celebrated once every two years.

→ Moharram, a Muslim festival, commemorates the battle of Karbala in Iraq in which the grandson of Prophet Mohammad was killed.

→ Muslim celebrates Urs or anniversaries of Muslim saints who lie hurried in various parts of the state.

→ People, who seek some specific blessings like children or jobs etc visit the Dargahs and pray there.

→ Dargahs are built on tombs of Sufi saints who propagated Sufism.

→ Bonalu is one of the popular folk festivals celebrated in the Telangana state.

→ Many historical books tell us that such folk gods were worshipped in very old times also. & Many of these deities are worshipped by people irrespective of their caste or religion or economic status.

→ Folk Deities: Traditional Gods

→ Jatara: A festival conducted for village gods.

→ Urs: Urs is the death anniversary of the Sufi saint in the dargah.

→ Peeri: A Peeri is prepared with bamboo strips in a dome shape.
(Or)
The Muslims too pay respects to the heroes who fought against evil.

→ Bonamu: The Godness is worshipped by offering food, which is later shared among the family members.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 12 The Kakatiyas – Emergence of the Regional Kingdom to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 12 The Kakatiyas – Emergence of the Regional Kingdom

→ Srimad-Andhra”Mahabharatam is the first poetic work in Telugu which was composed by Kavitrayamu, the Trinity of Poets – Nannaya, Tikkanen, and Erra Pragada between 1000 and 1400 AD.

→ Vaidyanathan wrote PrathaparUdra Yashobhushanam during the Kakatiya rule.

→ Kakatiya inscriptions are in Telugu and they called themselves ‘Andhra Rajas’.

→ During Rudradeva’s rule, the capital was shifted from Anmakonda to Orugallu.

→ Rudradeva built a big fort, a tank, and a temple called Thousand Pillared Temple in Anaconda.

→ The city buildings and palaces were within this stone wall.

→ The city itself was divided into several quarters or Vadas.

→ Rudramadevi ruled from Orugallu and belonged to the famous Kakatiya family. She ruled from 1262 AD to 1289 AD for nearly 27 years.

→ Marco Polo visited Rudramadevi’s kingdom.

→ The Kakatiyas brought large tracts of land under cultivation by building tanks and digging wells.

→ The Kakatiyas also extensively patronized temples by donating to them.

→ Sometime around 1190 AD, a new kingdom was established in Delhi. The new kings were called Sultans and they originally came from Turkistan.

→ Sultan Mohammad binTugluq was able to defeat Kakatiya Prataparudra in 1323 AD.

→ Palani Virula Katha written by Srinatha.

→ Warriors: Brave or experienced soldiers or fighters

→ Nayantara System: Nayakaras (the authority of several villages) depended upon the queen or the king and remained loyal to them. They were also probably used to subdue the rebellious chiefs. This arrangement was called the Nayankara system.

→ Samantha: The landlord or warrior chief of seventh century A.D.

→ Artisans: Skilled workers who make things by hand.

→ Turkistan: A kingdom in Europe.

→ Abhaya Sasana: A pillar inscription issued by the Kakatiya king.

→ Marco Polo: An Italian traveler.

→ Fort: A building constructed to defend a place against attack

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 15 Establishment of the British Empire in India to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 15 Establishment of the British Empire in India

→ In 1600 AD, the East India Company acquired the grant from Queen Elizabeth-1 to trade with the East.

→ By the time the English reached India, the Portuguese, the Dutch and the French had already established their trading centers in India.

→ European traders formed their own East India Companies to trade in India.

→ Trade was carried on with arms and trading posts were protected through fortification.

→ This effort to fortify their settlements and carry on profitable trade also led to intense conflict with local rulers.

→ The English East India Company and the French East India Company fought against each other for many years to capture the trade in India.

→ After the Mughal empire had broken up into small kingdoms, the companies found their chance to assert their power.

→ When two Indian rulers were fighting, the European Companies interfered took sides, lent their army to one side, and helped them defeat their rivals.

→ In return, the companies were gifted many trade concessions and large amounts of money by the rulers.

→ The companies also began to acquire small parts of kingdoms as gifts from the rulers.

→ Slowly the English began emerging victorious over the French Company in the struggle for dominance in India.

→ Some Indian rulers exempted the company from paying taxes on many of the goods. However, the company, its officials, and the people took advantage of these concessions.

→ Thus there was much looting and swindling took place in the kingdoms by the company, its officials, and the people.

→ The English gradually began to feel that they could make fuller and freer use of India for trade if they themselves ruled the country.

→ So they began removing the Nawabs and Rajas and started ruling themselves.

→ With the policies of Robert dove, Warren Hastings, Lord Wellesley, and Lord Dalhousie, a large area of India came under British rule.

→ There was discontentment against British rule in all spheres of Indian life. The royal families, the farmers and landowners, tribal people, Hindus and Muslims, and finally the Indian Sipahis under British service resisted the British.

→ On top of this, the Sipahis suspected that the cartridges for their guns were being coated with cow and pig fat to keep them dry. They felt that their religious faith was being violated.

→ All these causes led to a revolt in 1857. The revolt that started at Meerut and Barrackpur spread like wildfire to all parts of India.

→ A wave of people and policemen joined the Sipahis. The bungalows and offices of English were set afire and many English people were killed.

→ The spahis reached Delhi and declared the Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar their Badshah.

→ Many royal families such as Nawab of Avadh, the Peshwa Nana Sahib, Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, and Tantia Tope joined the revolt.

→ Despite the widespread success of the revolt, the English slowly gained control over the situation.

→ Lack of combined and well-planned effort from the rebels and the shortage of modern arms caused the failure of the revolt.

→ The English brutally punished the rebels and suppressed the revolt.

→ In 1858, Queen Victoria of England made a declaration saying that they would not dethrone the Indian kings and the British government would not interfere in religious matters of Indians.

→ Royal Charter: Written or printed statement of rights, permission to do something, especially from a ruler or government.

→ Subedar: A Mughal Governor.

→ Sole right: Right belongs to one person or company.

→ Demand: Desire or ability to buy or obtain (goods etc).

→ Jagir: It was a type of feudal land grant in South Asia at the foundation of its Jagirdar system.

→ Cantonment: A permanent military station.

→ Colonies: A colony is a group of people who settle in a new place but keep ties to their homeland.

→ Maulvies: An expert in, or teacher of Islamic law. (Or) Islamic scholar.

Students can go through AP State Board 6th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 4 Land Forms – Andhra Pradesh to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 6th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 4 Land Forms – Andhra Pradesh

→ Jana Gana Mana’ is the national anthem of our country, it describes the glory of our country. It Was written by Rabindranath Tagore.

→ ‘Ma Telugu Thalliki malle Poodanda… is our state song. “It describes the rivers and the rich heritage of our state. The shapes of the surface of the earth are called landforms. The lifestyle, food habits, and dressing patterns are different according to the region”

→ Landforms may vary from high elevated to plain land even valleys. Landforms can be mainly categorized into Plains, Plateaus, and Mountains or HiUs.These main landforms may contain several micro landforms. The height of the landforms is measured from Mean Sea Level (MSL).

→ A mountain is a natural higher elevated feature of the earth’s surface. Some mountains are even higher than the clouds. As we go higher and higher altitudes of mountains, the climate becomes cold. India has several huge mountain ranges like the Himalayas. In Andhra Pradesh state majority of high landforms are hills.

→ A plateau is an elevated flat land. It is a flab-topped table land standing above the surrounding area. A plateau may have one or more sides. The Deccan plateau in India is the oldest plateau and it is of volcanic origin. The larger part of Rayalaseema comes under the Deccan plateau region.

→ Plateaus are rich in mineral deposits. Many of the mining areas are located in the plateaus. The Deccan plateau is a lava plateau. The lava plateaus are rich in black soil that are fertile and good for the cultivation of cotton. Many plateaus have scenic spots and are great tourist attractions.

→ Plains are level lands with flat surfaces which have a maximum height of 200 meters above sea level.

→ Andhra Pradesh is located in the east coastal line of India. It is the seventh-largest state in India in the area and the tenth most populous state. The length of the coastal line of Andhra Pradesh is 972 km.

→ Andhra Pradesh comprises – Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Rayalaseema. Coastal Andhra Pradesh has 9 districts along the coast. This region has the fertile soils of Godavari, Krishna, and Penna Delta and the density of population is very high. Rayalaseema has 4 districts in the southern region of the state and is rich in minerals and horticulture crops. This has become a horticulture hub.

→ In Andhra Pradesh, most of the high’ elevated areas are in the form of hill ranges. In our state YSR Kadapa, East and West Godavari districts, Visakhapatnam, Chittoor, Kurnool, and Vizianagaram districts have stretches of hilly terrain.

→ Arma Konda (Zindagada) in Araku valley is the highest peak in our state with 1690 meters. Borra caves of Visakhapatnam district and Papikondalu of East and West Godavari districts are the famous tourist places in these landforms.

→ Lammasingi / Lambasingi, the interior tribal hamlet in Chintapalli Mandal of Visakhapatnam agency, has recorded single-digit temperatures in the winter. It is also known as ‘Kashmir of Andhra Pradesh’.

→ In hilly areas, the soils are uneven and sloped. These soils are red and rocky. Due to their high elevation and the natural downward movement of water, the soils are mostly well-drained and suitable for the plantation of beverage crops like Coffee and Tea.

→ Product is an ancient tribal agricultural practice in the hilly regions. It is also called Shifting or Jfiuming cultivation.

→ The plateau area of Andhra Pradesh belongs to the eastern Deccan Plateau and Rayalaseema region comes under this landform. Here low and uncertain rainfall and many times rain failure is a common feature. So. this area is a drought-prone region. The saline soils of plateau areas also contain more lime and salt which are unsuitable for cultivation.

→ In Andhra Pradesh, the plains are situated in coastal districts. These are stretching from Srikakulam district in the North to SPSR Nellore district in the South. These are known as coastal plains. In Andhra Pradesh, two main rivers Godavari and Krishna form a very big plain in the form of a delta.

→ The delta plains are treasure houses for food grains and are called rice granary of South India. The entire plain area in Andhra Pradesh is a gift to agriculture and farmers. Here the main occupation is agriculture and more than one crop can be cultivated in major parts of the plain, regions.

→ Landform: Is a natural feature on the Earth’s surface

→ Terrain: A stretch of land, especially with regard to its physical features

→ Agent: A person who acts on behalf of another person or group

→ Spring: A spring is a point at which water flows from an aquifer to the Earth’s surface

→ Drought: Prolonged shortage of water due to less rainfall

→ Drought prone area: The areas which are often hit up by droughts

→ Alluvial Soils: The soils formed with silt brought by rivers, very fertile lands

→ Orchards: Fruit gardens

→ Uplands: A little bit of high land in plain areas

→ Tenancy: The period of time for which a person has the right to use a piece of land

→ Juga: It is a tree grown in hilly areas. Caryota (the scientific name of Telugu) is a genus of palm trees.

→ Drought-hit: The area affected by drought

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 8 Industrial Revolution to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 8 Industrial Revolution

→ From 1500 AD to 1800 AD trade between countries in America, Europe, Africa, and Asia increased manifold.

→ In about 1750, machines and steam power began to be increasingly used to produce goods, to move goods and people from one place to another.

→ This was the beginning of the ‘machine age’ in Britain.

→ James Watt was an English craftsman who invented machines.

→ During 1750-1850, a new system called the ‘factory system’ emerged.

→ Production was now carried on in a place called ‘factory’.

→ All facilities for production were owned and managed by individuals called capitalists.

→ In the 19th century, the industrial workers of Europe had to face several hardships.

→ Major changes swept industries with the coming of machines.

→ Energy is needed to run machines in a factory. Energy is available from coal, electricity, petroleum, and so on.

→ The invention of the steam engine boosted the shipping industry. It also reduced the cost of transportation by one-third of the cost of road transport.

→ George Stephenson’s locomotive pulled heavy loads along a 64-kilometer track from Liverpool to Manchester at a speed of 46 kilometers per hour.

→ In the 1840s, John Loudon McAdam devised a method of laying roads using broken stones.

→ In the early 20th Century, aircraft was developed by Wright Brothers and today, air transport is a major means of transport.

→ The industrial revolution led to a gradual shift of people from villages to towns.

→ Slums became a common scenario in towns and cities, especially near the factories and mines. ,

→ Slowly people fought for civil rights and the conditions of the worker’s quarters also improved.

→ Revolution: It is an attempt, by a large ñumber of people, to change the government f a country, especially by violent action. Eg: A socialist Revolution, Industrial revolution

→ Production:: The quantity óf goods that are produced. Machines became important in place of minor tools and handlooms. They produced goods on a large scales

→ Factory: During 1750 – 1800, a new system called the ‘factory system’ emerged In the p1ace of simple tools and manual power, new machines and steam power came to be increasingly used Production was now carried on in a place called factory.

→ Organization: A group of people who work together in a structured way for a shared purpose.

→ Nuclear Energy: A powerful form of energy produced by converting matter into energy splitting the nuclei (centra) parts) of atoms, It Is used to produce electricity.

→ Urbanization: Expartson of town and cities.

→ Child worker: A working child aged below 14 years

→ Slums: A rundown re of a city or town inhabited by very poor people

→ Capitalists: All facilities for production were owned and managed by Individuals calledcapita1ists

→ Colonies: Colonies are those countries whose resources are used for the benefit of another country.

→ Manufactories: The traders brought together the craftspersons under one roof so that they did not have to go to each one’s home or explain their requirements to each person They set up small workshops called manufactories

→ ProtoindustrlaIjsago; The craftsmen brought their own tools and worked with raw materials given by the trader The trader then took the product and sold ¡tin the market. In this way slowly the control of the trader over the craftspersons increased. This phase is called ‘Proto- industrialization’

→ Machines: Major changes swept industries with the coming of machines. Machines could be worked by even unskilled persons. Thus skilled artisans were no longer required In their place a large number of women and children were employed and made to work for meager wages.