AP State Board Notes

Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 6 The People to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 6 The People

→ The population is a pivotal element in social studies.

→ A census is a procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population.

→ The census shows us the age structure, the sex ratio, the literacy rate, and life expectancy.

→ The numbers, distribution, and composition of the population are always changing. The birth rate is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year.

→ Population change can be expressed in two ways:

1. as absolute numbers and
2. as a percentage change.

→ The total fertility rate is the number of children that are likely to be born to a woman if she were to live to the end of her childbearing years and bear children in accordance with the current pattern.

→ Migration is the movement of people across regions and territories.

→ India is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.

→ Population growth: Increase In the number of people who inhabit a territory or state.

→ Population density: It is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume.

→ Sex ratio: It Is the ratio of males to females In a population.

→ Fertility rate: It is a term used to refer to the capability of people in a given region to give birth.

→ Population distribution: It is the pattern or arrangement of how people live in a particular area.

→ Infanticide: The crime of killing an infant.

→ literacy rate: It is the ability to read and write one’s own name and further for knowledge and interest.

→ Census: The procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 17 Colonialism in Latin America, Asia and Africa to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 17 Colonialism in Latin America, Asia and Africa

→ Some 600years ago the people of the world traveled very little. The Europeans wanted to discover sea routes to India, China, etc.

→ All European power, especially Spain, Portugal Denmark, England, and France sent expeditions to find out sea routes.

→ Columbus discovered America, Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to India.

→ Latin Americas were brought under the control of Spain and Portugal So many resources were traded with.

→ Revolts broke out and the President of the USA formulated ‘the Munroe Doctrine.

→ England was successful in colonizing most of India by 1757 and by 1857 India came to be directly ruled by the queen of English.

→ Unlike India, China was not fully colonized Opium wars were fought and the opium trade was accepted in China. But it was forced to accept trade with all colonial powers with equal rights. China was cut into spheres of influence.

→ The Dutch were successful in colonizing Indonesia. They ruled till the end of World War II.

→ Different African countries were colonized by different European powers.

→ Congo came to be ruled by Belgium. South Africa was an

→ Colonialism: Colonialism is a practice by which a powerful country directly controls less powerful countries and uses its resources to increase its own power and wealth.

→ Latin America: South America along with Central America is known as Latin America.

→ Ottoman Empire: The Turkist empire during the middle ages

→ Exploration: The act of traveling through a place in order to find out about it.

→ Apartheid: Racial discrimination followed in South Africa is known as Apartheid.

→ Haciendas: Haciendas were vast estates in South America that contained silver and copper mines, agricultural land, and also factories.

→ Munroe Doctrine: The Munroe doctrine is formulated by the President of the USA James Munroe according to which no European power would be allowed to build colonies in the American countries and the US would not interfere in the affairs of Europe or colonies in other continents.

→ Opium wars: Opium wars were the wars fought between China and England.

Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Biology Notes Chapter 4 Excretion to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Biology Notes Chapter 4 Excretion

→ Excretion is the term coined for all the biological processes involved in the separation and removal of wastes or non-useful products from the body.

→ The waste products include carbon dioxide, water, nitrogenous compounds like ammonia, urea, uric acid, bile pigments, excess salts, etc.

→ A human excretory system consisting of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

→ The kidney is bean-shaped from the inner side of each kidney, has fissure or hilus.

→ Through the hilus renal artery enters and the renal vein and ureter exit.

→ Each kidney is composed of a large number of uriniferous tubules or nephrons, which are structural and functional units of the kidney.

→ A nephron comprises Glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT), Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT), and collecting tubule.

→ Urine formation occurs in four stages: They are

1. Glomerular filtration,
2. Tubular reabsorption,
3. Tubular secretion and
4. The concentration of urine.

→ Glomerulus filtrate is also called primary urine.

→ Primary urine is almost equal to blood in chemical composition except for the presence of blood cells.

→ Useful substances in primary urine are reabsorbed into the peritubular network.

→ In tubular secretion, some other wastes like extra salts, ions of K⁺, Na⁺, Cl^– and H⁺ secretes from peritubular capillaries into the distal convoluted tubules.

→ 75% of the water content of the nephric filtrate is reabsorbed in the region of the proximal convoluted tubule.

→ Kidneys remove nitrogenous waste from the body, maintains water balance (osmoregulation), salt content, pH, and blood pressure in the human body.

→ The concentration of urine takes place in the area of collecting tubes in the presence of a hormone called vasopressin.

→ The absence of vasopressin hormone produces dilute urine.

→ The movement of urine in the ureter is through peristalsis.

→ The urinary bladder opens into the urethra which is 4 cm long in females and about 20 cm long in males.

→ The urethra’s opening is separate in females but is in common with the reproductive tract in males (urinogenital duct).

→ The discharge of urine from the body is called micturition.

→ Urine has amber color due to the presence of urochrome.

→ Urine contains 96% of water, 2.5% of organic substances, and 1.5% of inorganic solutes.

→ Complete and irreversible kidney failure is called ‘End-Stage Renal Disease’ (ESRD).

→ Uremia is the condition in which kidneys stop working completely and it results in a body being filled with extra water and waste products.

→ The dialysis machine is used to filter the blood of a person whose kidneys are damaged. The process is called ‘hemodialysis.’

→ Kidney transplantation is a permanent solution for renal failure patients.

→ The process of transplantation of organs from brain-dead patients to another is called ‘cadaver transplantation.’

→ The first kidney transplantation was performed by Dr. Charles Hufnagel in Washington, the USA in 1954.

→ In India, the first kidney transplantation was done on 1st December 1971 at the Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamilnadu.

→ Lungs, skin, liver have their own specific functions but carry out excretion as a secondary function.

→ Different animals have different excretory organs.

• Eg. amoeba and paramoecium – contractile vacuole.
• Phylum Excretory organs and systems.
• Platyhelminthes: Flame cells
• Annelids: Nephridia
• Arthropoda: Green glands, Malpighian tubules
• Mollusca: Meta nephridia
• Echinodermata: Water vascular system
• Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals: Kidneys
• Porifera, coelenterates: Water bathes almost all their cells
• Protozoa: Simple diffusion from the body surface into the surrounding water.

→ In plants, there are no specific organs to excrete wastes.

→ Plants can get rid of excess water by a process like transpiration and guttation.

→ In plants, waste products may be stored in leaves, bark, and fruits.

→ Waste gets stored in the fruits in the form of solid bodies called Raphides.

→ The biochemical substances produced in plants are of two types, primary metabolites, and secondary metabolites.

→ Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are primary metabolites.

→ Alkaloids, Tannins, Resins, Gums, and Latex, etc., are called secondary metabolites which do not require normal growth and development.

→ Alkaloids are nitrogenous by-products and poisonous.

→ Tannins are carbon compounds used in the leather industry and medicines.
Eg.: Cassia, Acacia.

→ Resin occurs mostly in Gymnosperms in specialized resin passages. They are used in varnishes.

→ Gum is a sticky substance that comes out when branches are cut in plants like Neem, Acacia.

→ Latex is a sticky, milky white substance secreted by plants.

→ From the latex of Heaven, Braziliensis rubber is prepared and from the latex of jatropha, bio-diesel is prepared.

→ Excretion is the removal of material from a living being, whereas secretion is the movement of materials from one point to another points.

→ Creatine: Nitrogenous organic acid occurs naturally in vertebrates, helps to supply energy to all cells in the body primarily muscles. This is achieved by increasing the formation of AiR

→ Tubular fluid: The filtered out fluid from the glomerulus contains waste molecules, nutrient molecules, and water. From the glomerulus, this fluid enters the tubular portion of the nephron.

→ Perftubular: Around the tubes, the renal tubule of nephrons ¡s surrounded by peritubular capillaries formed from an efferent arteriole.

→ Podocyte: These are single-layered squamous epithelial cells lining the glomerulus. The fine pores present between podocyte cells allows the passage of materials filtered out of the glomerulus.

→ Hyper – osmotIc: It ¡s more concentrated with solutes and has a higher osmotic pressure than blood plasma. This solution bathes and surrounds Interstitial fluids the cells of multicellular animals.

→ Glomerulus: It is a bunch of fine blood capillaries developed from an afferent arteriole. The blood ¡s filtered through the capillaries of the glomerulus into Bowman’s capsule.

→ PCT (Proximal Convoluted Tubule): It is the first part of the renal tubule of Nephron that starts from Bowman’s capsule. Useful substances in primary urine are reabsorbed into the peritubular network.

→ DCI’ (Distal Convoluted Tubule): It s the last part of the renal tubule of Nephron. In DCT some other wastes like extra salts, ions of K⁺, Na⁺, Cl^– and H⁺ are secreted from peritubular capillaries into DCT.

→ Afferent Arteriole: It forms a capillary network called glomerulus inside the Bowman’s capsule. It brings the pressured blood to the glomerulus and the pressure produces the flow of plasma fluids into the tubule.

→ Efferent ArterIole: ft is formed from Afferent arteriole. They play an important role in maintaining the glomerular filtration rate.

→ Calyces: Renal calyces are parts of the kidney that collect urine before it passes further into the urinary tract. These are the parts of the renal pelvis.

→ Micturition: It is the discharge of urine.

→ Urochrome: It is a pigment that causes the yellow color in urine. It is a breakdown product of the blood’s hemoglobin and is removed by the kidneys.

→ Henle’s loop: It is the portion of the nephron that leads from the proximal convoluted tubule to the distal convoluted tubule. It is named after its discoverer a German Anatomist Friedrich Gustav, Jakob Henle. Its main function is to create a concentration gradian in the medulla of the kidney.

→ Dialyzer: A medical instrument for separating substances in solution by unequal diffusion through a semi-permeable membrane.

→ Hemodialysis: It is the process of filtering the blood of a person by using a dialysis machine.

→ Anticoagulant: It does not allow the blood to clot. Eg. Heparin.

→ Alkaloid: Alkaloids are nitrogenous by-products and poisonous which are stored in different parts of the plant.

→ Biodiesel: The fuel which is obtained from biological materials of plants and animals.

→ Excretion: It is a biological process involved in the separation and removal of wastes or non-useful products from the body.

→ Michigan body: It ¡s the first part of Nephron. It consists of a blind cup-shaped broader end of the nephron called Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus.

→ Specimen: An individual animal, a plant, piece of mineral, etc., used as an example of its species or type for scientific study or display.

→ Hilus: The inner side opening of the kidney through which renal artery enters and exits of renal vein and the ureter.

→ Ureters: A pair of whitish, narrow stretch and expandable muscular tubes of 30 cm length arise from the hilus of the kidneys.

→ Cortex: Dark-colored outer zone of the kidney.

→ Medulla: Pale-colored inner zone of the kidney.

→ Nephron: It is also called a uriniferous tubule. It is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It filters the blood, reabsorbs and what is needed, and excretes what is not needed as urine.

→ Bowman’s capsule: It is the cup-shaped broader end of the nephron.

→ PelvIs: It is a funnel-like dilated proximal part of the ureter in the kidney. It is the point of convergence of two or three major calyces.

→ Distensible: Able to stretch and expand.

→ Peristalsis: The involuntary wave-like muscular movement in the alimentary canal or ureter.

→ Sphincter: A ring of muscle that contracts to close an opening.

→ Urethra: It is a tube that takes urine from the urinary bladder to the outside.

→ Amber color: It is a pure chroma color, located on the color wheel midway between yellow and orange.

→ Dialysis: The chemical bath used in dialysis to draw toxins out of the bloodstream and supply electrolytes and other chemicals to the bloodstream.

→ Transplantation: An operation moving an organ from one organism to another.

→ Immune system: It ¡s a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against attack by foreign invaders.

→ Braindead: It is the irreversible end of brain activity. Patients classified as brain dead can have their organs surgically removed for organ donation.

→ Contradilve vacuoles: It is a subcellular structure involved in osmoregulation. It’s are found predominantly in protists and in unicellular algae.

→ Guttation: The secretion of droplets of water from the pores of plants.

→ Yam: The edible starchy tuber of a climbing plant widely distributed in tropical and subtropical countries. (Pendulum in Telugu)

→ Chicle: It Is a natural gum traditionally used in making chewing gum and other products. It is collected from several species of Meso-American trees.

→ Alkaloid: These are nitrogenous by-products and poisonous. These are stored in different parts of the plants.

→ Osmoregulation: The process of regulating water contents and ion concentration in the body is called osmoregulation.

→ William John Kolff (1911 – 2009):

• William John Kolif invented the first practical artificial kidney in 1947.
• He was a pioneer of Haemodialysis as well as in the field of artificial organs.
• He constructed a dialysis machine with which filtered the blood artificially.
• The machine works on simple principles of diffusion and filtration across a semipermeable membrane.

Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 5 Indian Rivers and Water Resources to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 5 Indian Rivers and Water Resources

→ On the basis of its origin, the drainage system in India is divided into the Himalayan rivers and the Peninsular rivers.

→ The Himalayan rivers are perennial because they are supplied by rainfall as well as melting snow.

→ The Indus originates in the northern slopes of the Kailash range in Tibet near Lake Manasarovar.

→ A majority of the tributaries of Ganga originate in the Himalayas but some of them have their source in the peninsular plateau like the Chambal, the Sindh, the Betwa, the Ken, and the Son.

→ The Brahmaputra (also known as Tsangpo in Tibet) rises from the snout of the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near Manasarovar.

→ The major river systems of the peninsular drainage are the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Cauveri.

→ Surface flow includes rivers, streams, canals, and other flows on the surface of the water.

→ Precipitation includes snow, dew, hail, etc.

→ Some amount of water would flow out of the village as surface flows through streams. Water is used for agriculture, for domestic purposes and for animals, and for industrial use.

→ The annual flows and stocks that recharge wells and tube wells in the water that is available for use.

→ Rampant felling of trees and mining activity is resulting in forest degradation, along with the destruction of the habitat of highly threatened flora and fauna in the Tungabhadra basin.

→ Inadequate tree cover leads to water run-off as surface flow without getting a chance to recharge the underground system.

→ While increased industrialization and growth of urban areas have improved standards of living for some, the same activities have caused pollution, especially by industrial units.

→ There has been a mismatch between keeping pace with development activities on various fronts and providing sanitation and drinking water supply for all sections of society, both in small towns and rural areas.

→ Continuous contour trenches were dug on hill slopes to arrest the erosion of soil, harvest water, and encourage the growth of grass in Hiware Bazar of Maharashtra.

→ A number of water harvesting structures were also built in the village-check dams, percolation tanks, and loose boulder structures in Hiware Bazar.

→ Plantations on forest lands and roadsides were also part of the program in Hiware Bazar.

→ However one of the learnings has been that groundwater extraction cannot be controlled at a small unit or within a village boundary.

→ State governments have often chosen to increase power subsidies to make extraction of even deeper layers of groundwater possible.

→ Flow resource: Water ¡s a flow resource

→ Groundwater: Underground water that is held in the soil and rocks

→ Drainage: The discharge of water from any area through a system of natural streams with an arrangement of the main river and its tributaries

→ Water sharing Law: A law regarding water sharing among states

→ Watershed: The elevated boundary line that separates the headstreams that are tributary to different river basins

→ Catebment area: The area from which rain flows into a particular river or lake

→ Drought: A long period when there is little or no rain

→ Percolation: The process of moving gradually through a surface that has very small holes or spaces in It

→ Physiographic units: Physiography refers to the study of physical feature or landforms of the earth and their relation to one another-so- physical features

→ ‘V’ shaped valleys: The valleys that are ‘V’ shaped in cross-section generally are the product of cutting – down by a river

→ Tributary: A stream or a river that joins a larger river is said to be the tributary of the larger river

→ Rivulets: Small rivers or streams Continuous

→ Contour Trenches: Number of horizontal trenches made on the hill slopes to arrest the erosion of soil, harvest water, and encourage the growth of grass

→ Meanders: A curve In the course of a river that continually swings from side to side in wide loops as it progresses in a flat area.

→ Water cycle: Hydrological cycle = The circulation of water from the oceans to the atmosphere, back to the land, and so back to the oceans

→ Water budget: An estimate of inflow of water (precipitation + surface flow + groundwater flow) and outflow of water (evaporation + transpiration + flowing out water + used water) for an area = or a region during the year

→ Inflow: For any area inflow of water is the total of precipitation, groundwater flow, and surface flow

→ PrecipitatIon: The primary mechanism for transporting water from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth in the forms of snow, dew, hail, rain, etc.

→ Evaporation: The turning of water into vapor, takes place all the tun In water bodies like lakes, rivers, seas, and oceans, etc.

→ Transpiration: The process in which long things give off water Into the atmosphere through their breathing is called transpiration

→ Evapotranspiration: The total amount of water added to the atmosphere from both evaporation and transpiration Is called ‘evapotranspiration’

→ Aquifer: A layer of rock that holds water and allows water to percolate through it

→ Recharging of water: The percolation of water into the underground and becoming available for usage

→ Flash flood: A sudden transient rush of water amounting to a short-lived flood caused due to a violent rainstorm

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 16 Social Protest Movements to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 16 Social Protest Movements

→ Industrialization and the emergence of nation-states changed the lives of people in very basic ways.

→ In England, political protest against the harsh working conditions in factories kept increasing.

→ The workers expressed their anger and frustration in numerous forms of protest.

→ Socialism gained its importance. It demanded public control of resources. It opposed the concentration of wealth in few hands.

→ Thinkers like Plato and Thomas Moore were early thinkers.

→ Babeufbelieved in the abolition of private property and common enjoyment of land and its fruits.

→ Simon of France advocated for public control of property through central planning. He believed in building cooperative villages.

→ Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels asked workers to fight not only for better wages but for ending the capitalist system itself.

→ Many Indian thinkers were socialists.

→ Women did not have access to property or civil rights like voting etc.

→ They fought for their rights. Russian Revolution was the first to grant rights to all women in 1917. England gave rights to all women by 1928.

→ Even though legal equality was achieved, real equality still deludes women all over the world.

→ Socialism: Socialism is an economic system in which production and means of production are under the control of private persons.

→ Luddism: Luddism was a worker’s movement led by Ned Ludd.

→ Orienta lists: An orientalist is someone from the west who studies the language, culture, history, or customs of countries of east Asia i.e., Japan, China, etc.

→ Feminism: Feminism is the belief and aims that women should have the same rights – power and opportunities as men.

→ Capitalism: Capitalism is an economic system in which production and means of production are under the control of private people.

→ Revolutionaries: Revolutionaries are bodies of people which attempt to bring the desired change in the existing system of society.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 15 Industrialisation and Social Change to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 15 Industrialisation and Social Change

→ The transformation of industry and the economy in Britain between the 1780s and the 1850s is called the ‘first industrial revolution.

→ Industrialization led to greater prosperity for some.

→ Britain was the first country to experience modern industrialization.

→ On the basis of iron, coal, and textiles Britain built up a type of civilization, which has been copied all around the world.

→ Britain was lucky in possessing excellent coking coal and high-grade iron ore in the same basins or even the same seams.

→ Steam power was first used in mining industries.

→ The need to transport raw materials and manufactured products led to the improvement of roads and the digging of canals in England.

→ A survey in 1842 revealed that the average lifespan of workers was lower than that of any other social group in cities.

→ While industrialization began early in England, in the 18th century, it was not until the 1850s and 1870s that industrial production became prominent in Germany and France.

→ Prussia exploited its rich coalfields, and iron deposits in order to create a flourishing steel industry.

→ Industrialization: It is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial one.

→ Smelting: Iron is extracted as pure liquid metal from the ore by a process called smelting.

→ Industrial Revolution: The complex of socio-economic changes, such as the ones that took place in England in the late 18th century, that are brought about when extensive mechanization of production systems results in a shift from home-based hand manufacturing to large-scale factory production.

→ Steam Power: Steam power propelled first Britain and then the world into the industrial revolution and into increasing mechanization of all aspects of human endeavor, warfare of course included,

→ Hydraulic Power: Hydroelectric power

→ Mechanization: Using a machine to do something that used to be done by hand.

→ Transformation: A marked change. as in appearance or character, usually for the better.

→ Evaporation: The process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 14 Democratic and Nationalist Revolutions 19th Century to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 14 Democratic and Nationalist Revolutions 19th Century

→ The democratic and nationalist movements led to the emergence of the nation-state in place of the multinational dynastic empires of Europe.

→ European countries were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse people. They belonged to different ethnic groups, spoke different languages.

→ Socially and politically a lauded aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. But due to access to education and industrialization a new middle class had emerged.

→ The term “Liberalism” derives from the Latin root “Liber” meaning free. Liberalism insists on freedom in different aspects.

→ Conservatives believed in the establishment of traditional institutions of state and society.

→ In 1815 representatives of the European powers collectively defeated Napolean, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.

→ Europe witnessed two revolutions one in 1830 and another in 1848 which occurred during the reign of Charles X and Louis Philippe respectively. Both of them were forced to abdicate.

→ The nationalist feeling was widespread in Germany and finally, Germany was united under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck.

→ Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation. Sardinia – Piedmont State took the lead and United Italy. Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour played important roles. Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of United Italy.

→ Despotism: Despotism is a cruel and unfair government by a ruler or rulers who have a lot of power.

→ Nationalism: 1. Love and respect for his country. 2. The desire by a group of people of the same race, religion, origin, etc., to form an independent country.

→ Liberalism: It is a political philosophy that insists on freedom in all aspects.

→ Bureaucracy: It is an administrative system operated by a large number of officials.

→ Romanticism: Romanticism is the cultural movement of the 18th and 19th centuries which was concerned with the expression of an individual’s feelings and emotions.

→ New middle class: A new social group, who had access to education and new ideas and got jobs due to industrialization and commercialization, were called the New Middle class during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 3 Is Matter Pure? to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 3 Is Matter Pure?

→ In our day-to-day language, pure means something with no adulteration.

→ The mixture is made up of two or more components that are not chemically combined.

→ Mixtures are homogeneous and heterogeneous.

→ The substance is homogeneous, when its composition doesn’t change, no matter which part of the substance we take for examination.

→ A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture made up of different substances, or the same substance in different stages which are not uniformly distributed in it.

→ The solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances that we cannot separate by filtration.

→ The solution has two components i.e., solvent and solute.

→ The solvent is the substance that dissolves others in it.

→ The solute is the substance, that dissolved in the solvent,

→ An amount of solute present in a saturated solution at a certain temperature is called its solubility.

→ When no more solute can be dissolved in the solution at a certain temperature, it is said to be a saturated solution.

→ If the amount of solute contained in a solution is less than the saturation level, it is called an unsaturated solution.

→ A solution is said to be dilute if the amount of solute is little and concentrate if the amount of solute is large.

→ The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in grams presents per 100 ml or per 100 g of the solution.

→ Materials that are insoluble in a solvent and have particles that are visible to naked eyes are called suspension. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.

→ A mixture of two liquids that do not mix and settle into layers when they are left undisturbed is called emulsion.

→ Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which the particle size is too small to be seen with the naked eye, but is big enough to scatter light.

→ Colloids consist of two phases: disperse phase and dispersion medium.

→ The scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect.

→ We can use different techniques like handpicking, sieving/filtration, flotation, crystallization, chromatography, sublimation, evaporation, distillation, fractional distillation, centrifugation, etc. to separate mixtures.

→ Pure substances can be elements or compounds.

→ An element is a form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions.

→ A compound is a substance composed of two or more different types of elements, chemically combined in a fixed proportion.

→ Properties of compounds are different from their constituent elements, whereas mixture shows the properties of its constituting elements or compounds.

→ Pure substance: A substance is said to be pure i.e., homogeneous when the composition doesn’t change, no matter which part of the substance you take for examination.

→ Mixture: A mixture is generally made of two or more components that are not chemically combined.

→ Heterogeneous: A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture made up of different mixture substances or the same substance in different states which are not uniformly distributed in it.

→ Homogeneous: In a homogeneous mixture the components of the mixture are mixture uniformly distributed throughout it.

→ Solution: ‘The homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is that we can not separate them by the process of filtration called a solution.

→ Suspension. Materials that are insoluble in a solvent and have particles that are visible to naked eyes, form suspension. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.

→ Colloids: These are heterogeneous in nature and always consist of at least two types of phases and scatter a beam of visible light.

→ Colloidal dispersions: Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which the particle size is too small to be seen with the naked eye but big enough to scatter light.

→ Solvent: The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it (usually the component present in larger quantity) is called the solvent.

→ Solute: The component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent, (usually the component present in lesser quantity) is called the solute.

→ Concentration: The amount of solute present in a given amount of solution
(or)
The amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of solution is called the concentration of the solution.

→ Tyndall effect: The scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect.

→ Evaporation: Evaporation is a technique of separation of mixtures like salt and water or sugar and water, etc.

→ Centrifuge: Centrifuge ¡s a machine used to separate the mixtures like cream from milk, etc.

→ Miscible liquid: A liquid is said to be miscible if it dissolves completely in another liquid.

→ Immiscible liquid: An immiscible liquid is one that doesn’t dissolve but forms a layer over another liquid and can be separated easily.

→ Chromatography: Chromatography is a laboratory technique for the separation of mixtures into their individual components like inks and dyes.

→ Distillation: Distillation is used in the separation of components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids whose boiling points have a large difference (greater than 25°C).

→ Fractional distillation: Fractional distillation process is used to separate two or more miscible liquids when the difference in their boiling points is less than 25°C.

→ Element: An element is a basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions.

→ Compounds: Compounds are pure substances that can be separated into two or more components only by means of a chemical reaction.

→ Disperse phase: It is the substance that presents in small proportion and consists of particles of the colloidal size of mm to 100 nm.

→ Dispersion medium: It is the medium in which the colloidal particles are dispersed.

→ Emulsion: Emulsion is a mixture consisting of two liquids, that do not mix and settle into layers when they are left undisturbed.

→ Humphry Davy:

• Humphry Davy was born on 17 December 1778 and died on 29 May 1829.
• He was an English chemist and inventor.
• He discovered potassium, sodium, and boron.
• He invented the Davy lamp.

Students can go through AP State Board 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 4 Motion and Time to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 7th Class Science Notes Chapter 4 Motion and Time

→ An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect to its surroundings in a given time.

→ An object is said to be at rest if there is no change in its position with respect to its surroundings in a given time.

→ Motion is relative to the observer.

→ If a body covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in uniform motion.

→ If a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in non¬uniform motion.

→ We classify the motion of bodies as

• Translatory motion
• Rotatory motion
• Oscillatory motion.

→ If all parts of a moving body move in the direction of motion then the motion is said to be in translatory motion.

→ If a body in translatory motion moves along a straight line then the motion is called rectilinear motion.

→ If a body in translatory motion moves along a curved path then the motion is called curvilinear motion.

→ The ‘to’ and ‘fro’ motion of an object about a fixed point always following the same paths is called oscillatory motion.

→ The basic unit of time is a second (s).

→ The speed of an object is the distance travelled by it is a unit of time.

→ 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s.

→ Motion is a common experience in our life.

→ An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position.

→ The motion of all particles of a moving body follows a circular path with respect to a fixed centre or axis of rotation.

→ We measure time by using different instruments like electronic clocks, digital clocks etc.

→ A speedometer helps us to know the speed of a vehicle.

→ Units of speed in the SI system is meters per second.

→ MotIon: A meaningful or expressive change in the position of the body or a part of the body; a gesture.

→ Rest: Termination or absence of motion.

→ Translatory motion: If all parts of a moving body move in the direction of motion then the motion is said to be in translatory motion.

→ Rotatory motion: if a body moving in a circular path around a fixed point.

→ Axis of rotation: An imaginary line passing through the fixed point of rotatory motion.

→ Oscillatory motion: The body is in to and fro motion along the same path of motion.

→ Speed: Distance travelled and divided by the time of travel.

→ Average speed: Speed of an object as the distance travelled by it in a unit of time.

→ Speedometer: Añ instrument for indicating speed.

→ Odometer: An instrument that indicates the distance travelled by a vehicle.

→ Rectilinear: Moving in a straight line or lines.

→ CurvIlinear: Following a curved line.

→ Like minutes and hours, week, fortnight, month, season, Ayanami are also units for measuring time. Sundial, sand clock, water clock etc. are used primitively to measure the time.

→ Louis Pasteur (1822 – 1895):
Louis Pasteur was born in a village Dole in France on 27th December 1822. His father was a soldier. As a school student, Pasteur was a weak-minded scholar.
During his college days, he was inspired by the Lectures of Dumas the famous scientist. Thus Pasteur became a chemist after picturing his Doctorate.

Later Pasteur came to be known for his Pasteurisation, Antirabies vaccination etc. Pasteur dedicated his life to the invention of many precautionary measures to save lives. He died on 27th September 1895 and his grave was erected in the same institute where he conducted his experiments till his death.

Students can go through AP Board 7th Class Social Notes 1st Lesson విశ్వం మరియు భూమి to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP Board 7th Class Social Notes 1st Lesson విశ్వం మరియు భూమి

→ జీవరాశులున్న ఏకైక గ్రహం భూమి.

→ విశ్వాన్ని అధ్యయనం చేసే శాస్త్రాన్ని ఖగోళశాస్త్రం అంటారు. దీనిని రష్యన్ భాషలో “కాస్మాలజీ” అని ఆంగ్లంలో “ఆస్ట్రానమీ” అంటారు.

→ ఖగోళశాస్త్రంలో శాస్త్రీయ పరిశోధన ‘టెలిస్కోప్’ను కనుగొన్న గెలీలియో అనే ఇటాలియన్ ఖగోళ శాస్త్రవేత్తతో ప్రారంభమయింది.

→ విశ్వం యొక్క ఆవిర్భావం గురించి ‘మహా విస్ఫోటన (బిగ్ బ్యాంగ్) సిద్ధాంతం’ తెలియజేస్తుంది.

→ మహా విస్ఫోటన సిద్ధాంతాన్ని బెల్జియం దేశానికి చెందిన ఖగోళ శాస్త్రవేత్త జార్జిస్ లెమైటర్ ప్రతిపాదించాడు.

→ ప్రస్తుత విశ్వం 13.7 బిలియన్ సం||రాల క్రితం చిన్న అణువు నుండి ప్రారంభమై నేటికీ విస్తరిస్తోందని అతను గట్టిగా నమ్మాడు.

→ ‘విశ్వం’ అనే పదం లాటిన్ పదమైన ‘యూనివర్సమ్’ నుండి ఉద్భవించింది. దీని అర్థం ‘మొత్తం పదార్థం’ మరియు “మొత్తం అంతరిక్షం”.

→ విశ్వం సెకనుకు 70 కి.మీ. మేర విస్తరిస్తోంది.

→ ఖగోళ శాస్త్రవేత్తల ప్రకారం విశ్వంలో కనీసం 125 బిలియన్ గెలాక్సీలున్నాయి.

→ గెలాక్సీ యొక్క ఒక అంచు నుంచి మరో అంచుకు దూరం 1,20,000 కాంతి సంవత్సరాలు.

→ కాంతి సంవత్సరం అనేది దూరాన్ని కొలిచే ఒక ప్రమాణం. కాంతి ఒక సం||లో ప్రయాణించగల దూరం.

→ కాంతి సెకనుకు 3,00,000 కి.మీ. వేగంతో ప్రయాణిస్తుంది.

→ మన సౌర కుటుంబంలో 8 గ్రహాలున్నాయి. అవి బుధుడు, శుక్రుడు, భూమి, కుజుడు (అంగారకుడు), బృహస్పతి (గురుడు), శని, వరుణుడు మరియు ఇంద్రుడు.

→ శాస్త్రవేత్తల అంచనా ప్రకారం 4. 6 బిలియన్ సం||రాల క్రితమే మన సౌర కుటుంబం ఆవిర్భవించింది.

→ భూకేంద్రక సిద్ధాంతాన్ని టాలెమి అనే ఈజిప్టు ఖగోళ శాస్త్రవేత్త ప్రతిపాదించాడు.

→ సూర్యకేంద్రక సిద్ధాంతాన్ని నికోలస్ కోపర్నికస్ అనే పోలిష్ ఖగోళ శాస్త్రవేత్త ప్రతిపాదించాడు.

→ భూమి విశ్వానికి కేంద్రమని నమ్మే సిద్ధాంతం భూకేంద్రక సిద్ధాంతం.

→ సూర్యుడు సౌరవ్యవస్థకు కేంద్రమని నమ్మే సిద్ధాంతం సూర్యకేంద్రక సిద్ధాంతం.

→ నీహారిక పరికల్పన ప్రకారం గ్రహాలు సూర్యునితో సంబంధం ఉన్న ధూళి మరియు వాయువులతో కూడిన మేఘం నుండి ఏర్పడ్డాయి.

→ ఒక ప్రాంతంలోని మొక్కలు, జంతువులు మరియు సూక్ష్మజీవులతో కూడిన అన్ని జీవ మరియు జీవరహిత కారకాలతో పనిచేసే సహజ వ్యవస్థను పర్యావరణం అంటారు.

→ భూమి యొక్క రాతి పొరను శిలావరణము అంటారు.

→ శిలావరణములో భూస్వరూపాలను మూడు శ్రేణులుగా విభజించారు. అవి మొదటి శ్రేణి, రెండవ శ్రేణి, మూడవ శ్రేణి.

→ శిలావరణము (లిథోస్పియర్) అనే పదం ‘లిథో’ మరియు స్నెరా అనే గ్రీకు పదాల నుంచి ఉద్భవించింది. లిథో అంటే ‘రాయి’ మరియు స్పైరా అంటే ‘గోళం’ లేదా బంతి అని అర్ధం.

→ పర్యావరణం (ఎన్విరాన్మెంట్) అనే పదం ఫ్రెంచ్ పదం అయిన ‘ఎన్విరోనర్’ అంటే ‘పొరుగు’ అనే అర్ధం నుంచి ఉత్పన్నమైంది.

→ భూమి అంతర్భాగం మూడు పొరలను కలిగి ఉంది. అవి : 1) భూ పటలం, 2) భూ ప్రావారం, 3) భూకేంద్ర మండలం.

→ వ్యవసాయం మరియు నివాసాల కోసం మనం ఉపయోగించే ఆవరణం శిలావరణము.

→ భూమి యొక్క ఉపరితలంలో ఉన్న అన్ని నీటి వనరులను సమష్టిగా జలావరణం అంటారు.

→ హైడ్రోస్పియర్ (జలావరణం) అనే పదం ‘హైడర్’ మరియు ‘స్పైరా’ అనే గ్రీకు పదాల నుండి ఉద్భవించింది. ‘హైడర్’ అంటే నీరు మరియు స్పైరా అంటే గోళం లేదా బంతి అని అర్ధం.

→ జలమును సమృద్ధిగా కలిగి ఉన్న ఏకైక గ్రహం కనుక భూమిని “జలయుత గ్రహం” అని పిలుస్తారు. – భూమి యొక్క ఉపరితలం సుమారు 2/3 వ వంతు (71%) నీటితో ఆవరించి ఉంది.

→ కేవలం 1% నీరు మాత్రమే మన అవసరాలకు ఉపయోగపడుతుంది. మిగిలిన 99% నీరు మంచు, ఉప్పు నీరు మొదలగు రూపంలో ఉంటుంది.

→ భూమి లోపల రాళ్ళ పొరల మధ్య లోతుగా ఉండే జలాన్నే భూగర్భ జలం అంటారు.

→ భూమి చుట్టూ ఉన్న గాలి యొక్క మందపాటి పొరను వాతావరణం అంటారు.

→ వాతావరణం (అట్మాస్ఫియర్) అనే పదం ‘అట్మోస్’ మరియు ‘స్పెరా’ అనే గ్రీకు పదాల నుండి ఉద్భవించింది. అట్మోస్ అంటే ‘ఆవిరి’ అని ‘స్పైరా’ అంటే గోళం లేదా బంతి అని అర్థం.

→ ఆక్సిజన్ “ప్రాణ వాయువు” గా పరిగణించబడుతుంది.

→ వాతావరణంలో ట్రోపో, స్ట్రాటో, మెసో, థర్మో మరియు ఎక్సో అనే ‘5’ (ఆవరణాలు) పొరలు కలవు.

→ వృక్షాలు, జంతువులు, కంటికి కనిపించని అసంఖ్యాక సూక్ష్మజీవులు మరియు మానవులు కలిసి ఉండే ఆవరణాన్ని జీవావరణం అంటారు.

→ జీవావరణం (బయోస్పియర్) అనే పదం గ్రీకు పదాలైన ‘బయోస్’ మరియు స్పెరా నుండి ఉద్భవించింది. ‘బయోస్’ అంటే ‘జీవితం’ మరియు స్పెరా అంటే ‘గోళం’ లేదా ‘బంతి’.

→ ప్రతి సంవత్సరం జూన్ 5వ తేదీని ప్రపంచ పర్యావరణ దినోత్సవంగా జరుపుతున్నాం.

→ ప్రతి సంవత్సరం ఏప్రిల్ 22వ తేదీని ప్రపంచ ధరిత్రీ దినోత్సవంగా జరుపుతున్నాం.

→ ప్రతి సంవత్సరం మార్చి 22వ తేదీని ప్రపంచ జల దినోత్సవంగా జరుపుతున్నాం.

→ ప్రతి సంవత్సరం సెప్టెంబరు 16వ తేదీని ప్రపంచ ఓజోన్ దినోత్సవంగా జరుపుతున్నాం.

→ వాతావరణంలో ఆక్సిజన్ 21% కలదు.

→ వాతావరణంలో నైట్రోజన్ 78% కలదు.

→ వాతావరణంలో కార్బన్ డై ఆక్సైడ్ 0.03% కలదు.

→ వాతావరణంలో ఆర్గాన్ 0.93% కలదు.

→ మానవులతో ఏర్పడిన పరిసరాలను ‘మానవ పర్యావరణం’ అంటారు. ఇది వ్యక్తి కుటుంబం, సమాజం, మత, విద్య, ఆర్థిక, రాజకీయ పరిస్థితులను కల్గి ఉంటుంది.

→ మానవులు తయారు చేసిన పరిసరాలను మానవ నిర్మిత పర్యావరణం అంటారు. ఇది భవనాలు, కర్మాగారాలు, ఉద్యానవనాలు, రోడ్లు, వంతెనలు, ప్రాజెక్ట్లు మరియు స్మారక చిహ్నాలు మొ||న వాటిని కల్గి ఉంటుంది.

→ పర్యావరణంలోనికి వివిధ రకాల మలినాలు చేరడాన్ని కాలుష్యం అంటారు.

→ విపత్తు అనేది స్వల్ప లేదా దీర్ఘకాలికంగా సంభవించే తీవ్రమైన అంతరాయం.

→ వరద అనేది పొడిగా ఉన్న భూమిని మునిగిపోయేలా చేసే అధిక నీటి ప్రవాహం.

→ భూమి అంతర్భాగంలో అకస్మాత్తుగా విడుదలయ్యే తరంగాల ప్రభావంతో భూమి కంపించడాన్ని “భూకంపం” అంటారు.

→ ఏదైనా విపత్తును నివారించడానికి అవసరమైన చర్యలతో ప్రణాళిక రూపొందించడం, నిర్వహించడం మరియు అమలు చేయడం యొక్క నిరంతర, సమగ్ర ప్రక్రియనే విపత్తు నిర్వహణ అంటారు.

→ పదవ పంచవర్ష ప్రణాళికలో మొదటిసారిగా విపత్తు నిర్వహణ “అభివృద్ధి అంశం”గా నిర్ణయించబడింది.

→ విశ్వం : ఊహించలేని అనేక అంశాలు కలిగి ఉన్న విస్తారమైన అంతరిక్షమును విశ్వం అంటారు.

→ సౌర కుటుంబం : సూర్యుడు, గ్రహాలు, ఉపగ్రహాలు, గ్రహశకలాలు, ఉల్కలు మరియు తోకచుక్కలు మొదలైన ఖగోళ వస్తువులు కల్గిన వ్యవస్థ.

→ పర్యావరణం : ఒక ప్రాంతంలోని మొక్కలు, జంతువులు మరియు సూక్ష్మజీవులతో కూడిన అన్ని జీవ మరియు జీవరహిత కారకాలతో కలిసి పనిచేసే సహజ వ్యవస్థను పర్యావరణం అని అంటారు.

→ కాలుష్య కారకాలు : పర్యావరణాన్ని కలుషితం చేసే అంశాలు : ఉదా : శిలాజ ఇంధనాలను మండించటం, అడవుల నిర్మూలన, పారిశ్రామిక వ్యర్థాలు.

→ విపత్తులు : అనుకోకుండా పెద్ద ఎత్తున భారీగా ధన, ప్రాణ, ఆస్తి నష్టం కల్గించే ప్రమాదాలు. ఇవి సహజంగా సంభవిస్తాయి. ప్రకృతి విపత్తుకు ఉదా : భూకంపాలు, సునామి మొదలైనవి.

→ ఖగోళశాస్త్రం : విశ్వాన్ని అధ్యయనం చేసే శాస్త్రాన్ని ఖగోళ శాస్త్రం అంటారు.

→ ఖగోళ శాస్త్రవేత్త : అంతరిక్షంలో నక్షత్రాలు, గ్రహాలు మరియు ఇతర సహజ వస్తువులను అధ్యయనం చేసే వ్యక్తియే ఖగోళ శాస్త్రవేత్త.

→ మహా విస్ఫోటన (బిగ్ బ్యాంగ్) సిద్ధాంతం: ఈ విశ్వం 13.7 బిలియన్ సం||రాల క్రితం ఒక చిన్న అణువు నుండి ప్రారంభమై నేటికీ విస్తరిస్తోందని తెలియజేసే సిద్ధాంతం. దీనిని జార్జిస్ లెమైటర్ ప్రతిపాదించాడు.

→ కాంతి సంవత్సరం : కాంతి సంవత్సరం అనేది దూరాన్ని కొలిచే ఒక ప్రమాణం, కాంతి ఒక సం||లో ప్రయాణించగల దూరం.

→ భూకేంద్రక సిద్ధాంతం : భూమి ఈ విశాల విశ్వానికి కేంద్రమని ఈ సిద్ధాంతం చెబుతోంది.

→ సూర్యకేంద్రక సిద్ధాంతం : సూర్యుడు ఈ విశాల విశ్వానికి కేంద్రమని ఈ సిద్ధాంతం చెబుతోంది.

→ శిలావరణము : భూమి యొక్క రాతి పొర. + జలావరణము : భూమి యొక్క ఉపరితలంలో ఉన్న అన్ని నీటి వనరులను సమష్టిగా జలావరణం అంటారు.

→ వాతావరణము : భూమి చుట్టూ ఉన్న గాలి యొక్క మందపాటి పొర.

→ జీవావరణము : వృక్షాలు, జంతువులు, కంటికి కన్పించని అసంఖ్యాక సూక్ష్మజీవులు మరియు మానవులు కలసి ఉండే ఆవరణం.

→ భూమి అంతర్భాగం : 1) భూపటలము, 2) భూ ప్రావారము, 3) భూ కేంద్రము.

→ వాతావరణంలోని పొరలు : ‘ట్రోపో, స్టాటో, మెసో, థర్మో మరియు ఎక్సో ఆవరణములు.

→ మానవ పర్యావరణం : మానవులతో ఏర్పడిన పరిసరాలు. ఉదా : కుటుంబం, మతం.

→ మానవ నిర్మిత పర్యావరణం : మానవులు తయారు చేసిన పరిసరాలు.
ఉదా : భవనాలు, కర్మాగారాలు.

→ పర్యావరణ కాలుష్యం : పర్యావరణంలోనికి వివిధ రకాల మలినాలు చేరడాన్ని పర్యావరణ కాలుష్యం అంటారు.

→ విపత్తు : విపత్తు అనేది స్వల్ప లేదా దీర్ఘకాలికంగా సంభవించే తీవ్రమైన అంతరాయం.

→ విపత్తు నిర్వహణ : ఏదైనా విపత్తును నివారించడానికి అవసరమైన ప్రణాళిక రూపొందించడం, నిర్వహించడం మరియు అమలు చేయడం యొక్క నిరంతర మరియు సమగ్ర ప్రక్రియ.

→ నీటి కాలుష్యం : నీటి నాణ్యతలో ఏదైనా భౌతిక, జీవ లేదా రసాయనిక మార్పు జరిగి దానివల్ల జీవులపై దుష్ప్రభావం ఏర్పడినట్లయితే దానిని నీటి కాలుష్యంగా పరిగణిస్తారు.

→ పాలపుంత : మన సౌర వ్యవస్థ ఉన్న గెలాక్సీ.

→ పారిశ్రామిక విప్లవం : పారిశ్రామిక రంగంలో వచ్చిన ఆకస్మిక మార్పులు (ఉత్పత్తి రంగం).

→ వాయు కాలుష్యం : గాలిలో కార్బన్ డయాక్సెడ్ వంటి హానికరమైన మూలకాల పెరుగుదల.

→ కిరణజన్య సంయోగ : కార్బన్ డయాక్సెడ్ మరియు నీటి నుండి పోషకాలను సంశ్లేషణ చేయడానికి మొక్కలు సూర్యరశ్మిని ఉపయోగించే ప్రక్రియ.

→ గురుత్వాకర్షణ శక్తి : విశ్వంలోని రెండు వస్తువుల మధ్య ఉన్న ఆకర్షణ శక్తి.

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Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 17 The Making of Independent India’s Constitution to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 17 The Making of Independent India’s Constitution

→ The constitution outlines the structure and powers of the government and its organs like executive, legislature, judiciary, etc.

→ It indicates the nature of the future society which has to be built by the joint efforts of the state and the society.

→ The Constitution of India was prepared and adopted by the Constituent Assembly,

→ The Provincial Assemblies indirectly elected members and the Princely States nominated members to Constituent Assembly.

→ A Drafting Committee was set up under the chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and its task was to prepare the final draft taking into account all viewpoints.

→ The Draft Constitution is a formidable document containing 895 Articles and 8 Schedules (In the text-only 315 Articles were given). (At present Indian Constitution contains 448 Articles and 12 Schedules.)

→ We have Parliamentary Democracy in our country.

→ The USA has Presidential Democracy in their country.

→ Our President can do nothing contrary to the advice of the Council of Ministers nor can he do anything without their advice,

→ We have a federal system with single citizenship, a single integrated judiciary, and a common All India Civil Service.

→ Whereas the USA has a federal system with dual citizenship, dual judiciary, and duality of services.

→ Our Constitution supported decentralization under article 40 to set up and expand Gram panchayats or local self-governance.

→ Our Constitution abolished untouchability in any form under article 17.

→ Amending the articles can be initiated only by the Parliament.

→ Some amendments should get 2/3rd members’ approval in both the houses of Parliament – Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.

→ Some articles may be amended only with acceptance from the state legislatures as well.

→ In the Keshavanada Bharati case, it was argued that certain provisions in the Indian Constitution cannot be changed under any circumstances like Fundamental Rights.

→ Drafting Committee: A committee appointed by the Constituent Assembly for preparing the first draft of the Constitution.

→ Constituent: An assembly whose purpose is to frame a Constitution for the Assembly country

→ Preamble: Introduction which embodies the basic principles on which Constitution is based.

→ Concurrent list: A list of 47 items given in part XI of the Constitution of India, concerned with the relation between the Union and States. This part is divided between legislative and administrative powers.

→ Unitary principles A strong Centre, a single Constitution, flexibility of the Constitution, single citizenship, inequality of representation in the upper house, etc.

→ Federal principles: Rigiil and written Constitution, decentralization of powers, power to alter the boundaries.

→ Citizenship The state of being vested with the rights, privileges, and duties of a citizen.

→ Presidential system: A presidential system is a republic system of government where a head of government is also head of state.

→ Parliamentary system: A parliamentary system is a system of democratic governance of a state in which the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from, and is held accountable to the legislature, the executive.

→ Amendment: A procedure is laid down in the Constitution itself by which changes can be brought about. This is an amendment.

→ Constitution: A Constitution is a body of laws and rules according to which a country is governed.

→ Polity: The system of government or political organization.

→ Dual Polity: Union at the center and states at the periphery each with sovereign powers assigned to them by the Constitution.

→ Federal system: Dual polity (or) a system of two governments at two levels with well-defined powers.

→ Sovereign state: A state having supreme power (in internal and external affairs) and fully independent.

→ Socialist state: One which tries to bring about economic and social equality.

→ Secular state: A state which does not have any religious concern or does not interfere with the religious affairs of people.

→ Justice: Everyone should be treated with equal fairness or everyone should be given his/her due.

→ Equality: Each individual is assured of equality of status and opportunity for development.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 9 Adaptations in Different Ecosystems to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 9 Adaptations in Different Ecosystems

→ Adaptation is a physiological or structural characteristic of an organism, becomes suited to a particular environment

→ Organisms in nature create adaptable situations around them on the basis of their needs.

→ Organisms need shelter, food, light, air and many other things for their survival

→ Adaptations in xerophytic plants are succulent stems, reduced leaves and have a deep root system.

→ Animals living in the deserts also show adaptive characteristic features.

→ Microscopic planktons have droplets of oil in their cells that keeps them float

→ Each form of marine life has become adapted to a specific area with a relatively narrow variation in salinity, temperature and light

→ Aquatic animals have certain adaptations to fight the pressure of the underwater current

→ Marine life has adapted to an incredible variety of conditions and habitats.

→ Marine adaptations include symbiosis, camouflage, defensive behaviour, reproductive strategies etc.

→ The marine ecosystem is divided into euphotic zone, bathyal zone and abyssal zone.

→ Based on the light penetration freshwater ecosystem is divided into a littoral zone, limnetic zone and profundal zone.

→ Partially submerged plants have numerous air spaces inside the stems, leaves, roots that aid in gaseous exchange and buoyancy.

→ Plants in temperate regions shed their leaves before the winter.

→ In tropical regions, some plants shed their leaves before the start of summer.

→ Animals living in cold regions have a thick layer of fat or thick fur coat covering their bodies.

→ To protect themselves from the extremes of hot and cold conditions, animals adapt to hibernation and aestivation. E.g.: frog

→ Animals living in the bottom layers of the sea are scavengers or predators are one usually blind

→ Mangroves: Plants grown at seashores. Growing ¡na wet and salty places.

→ Precise: Exact, accurate.

→ Adaptations: It ¡s a feature that ¡s common in any population because it provides some improvements for better survival.

→ Succulent stem: Water is stored in the tissues of the stem.

→ Xerophytes: Plants that were grown in fewer water areas like deserts.

→ Scorching: Burn superficially.

→ Pebble plants: Smooth, round water-storing plants leave store water.

→ Ornamental plants: Decorative plants are kept in pots at homes.

→ Adder snake: A small poisonous snake often with diamond-shaped marks on its back.

→ Nocturnal: Animals that are active during the night.

→ Beneath: Lower position.

→ Strenuous: Energetic

→ Ecosystem: Unit of a biosphere. It comprises both biotic and abiotic components.

→ Incredible: Impossible or very difficult to believe.

→ Blubber: The fat of whales and other sea animals.

→ Photosynthesis: It ¡s the process of preparing carbohydrates by plants in the presence of sunlight, chlorophyll, water and carbon dioxide. It is an anabolic process.

→ Respiration: It ¡s a catabolic process. Carbohydrates are broken down into water and carbon dioxide releasing energy.

→ Barnacles: Fish that attaches itself to objects underwater. e.g. Ample to rocks and bottoms of ships.

→ Transpiration: The loss of water vapour from a plant, especially through the stomata.

→ Herring gulls: A large North Atlantic bird of gull family with black tips to its wings.

→ Camouflage: The way in which an animal’s colours or shape matches its surroundings and makes ¡t difficult to see.

→ Symposium: A small conference. A meeting at which experts have discussions about a particular subject.

→ Trout: A common freshwater fish that is used for food.

→ Herring: A North Atlantic fish that swims ¡n very large groups and is used for food.

→ Bioluminescence: Refers to the production of light by living organisms. It ¡s common in deep-sea organisms, and in some insects. e.g. Fireflies.

→ Puddle: Small amount of water or liquid especially rain that has collected in one place on the ground.

→ Scavengers: Animal feeding on dead organisms which it has not killed.

→ Euphotic zone: The top layer of a sea through which light can penetrate, allowing photosynthesis to take place. It is usually 200 m in depth.

→ Bathyal zone: It is usually 200 m to 2000 m depth. Dimly light can penetrate. Light is not sufficient to perform photosynthesis.

→ Abyssal zone: The zone from 2000 m to 6000 m depth. There is no light and always dark.

→ Littoral zone: The shallow zone near the seashore. The water near the shore is usually muddy.

→ Limnetic zone: It is the open water zone at the top of the water body that receives a good deal of light.

→ Profundal zone: It ¡s dimly light and cold. Most heterotrophs are found in this region.

→ Phytoplanktons: Free-floating plants living near the surface oía sea or lake.

→ Amphibians: Animals that can live in water and also on land. E.g.: Frogs, toads etc.

→ Aestivation: Summer sleep. This refers to a state of inactivity which some animals undergo during long periods of drought or heat.

→ Hibernation: Winter sleep.

→ Crustacean: Any creature with a soft body that ¡s divided into sections and a hard out shell. E.g.: Crabs, shrimps etc.

→ Wading birds: Birds walk or move with difficulty ¡n water.

→ Finch: A small bird with a sharp beak. Our state bird is also a finch.

→ Though these are called Living stones they are not stones. The swollen leaves are adapted to desert conditions, minimizing water loss and storing water. These are also called Pebble Plants. Each pebble is actually a leaf with a cut window that lets in light. The stone-like appearance deceives the animals and saves them from being eaten.

→ Animals that are active during the night and sleep during the day are called Nocturnals. These creatures generally have highly developed senses of hearing and smell. They have especially adapted eyesight to see well in dark. Animals like bats, emit a high pitched sound that bounces off objects to find prey or protect from predators.

Cats, Rats, Bats, Owls are the Nocturnals generally seen in our surroundings. Some insects like crickets, firefly and fishes like cuttlefish are active during the night only. Some desert animals become nocturnals in order to escape extreme daytime heat.

→ Electric Eel is an electric fish. It is capable of generating powerful electric shocks of up to 600 Volts when uses for hunting self-defence. It is an apex predator. Despite its name, it is not an eel, but rather a knife fish.

→ Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882):

• Charles Darwin was a British scientist who laid the foundation of the theory of natural selection.
• In 1831, he joined a five-year expedition on the survey ship H.M.S. Beagle and reached Galapagos islands, 500 miles away from South America.
• He studied the different organisms of the islands.
• Darwin noticed that each island supported its own form of finch which were closely related but differed in important ways.
• Darwin observed that these birds had adapted to their surroundings for food and shelter and showed a lot of variation even within the same species.
• In 1859 Darwin published on the origin of species by natural selection.