Srinivas

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 8 Challenges in Improving Agricultural Products to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 8 Challenges in Improving Agricultural Products

→ Increasing food production in proportion to the increasing population is a big challenge for our country.

→ The production of a crop depends on

• the kind of seeds planted,
• the properties of the soil,
• the availability and proper application of irrigation and fertilizers,
• the weather, controlling insect attacks,
• the growth of weeds and so on.

→ Alternating crops preserve soil fertility.

→ Producing a variety of crops, as well as an increase in production, can be possible in a mixed crop system.

→ Irrigation plays an important role in increasing crop production.

→ A plant uses only 0.1 per cent of the water it absorbs to form carbohydrates.

→ Only the nutrient that dissolves in water is absorbed by the roots of the plant

→ Hybridization methods and genetic engineering methods enables us to bring desirable characters in seeds.

→ Transpiration and absorption of water occur through stomata.

→ Macronutrients are required in large quantities by plants. e.g.: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium.

→ Micronutrients are required in small quantities by plants. e.g.: Iron, Boran, Manganese, Zinc etc.

→ Agriculture officers advise farmers to cultivate dryland crops in fewer water areas.

→ Leguminous plants with root nodules supply nitrogen to the plant

→ Organic manure is produced by decaying plant and animal wastes.

→ Nutrients are replenished with crop rotation, adding organic manure or chemical fertilizers.

→ Green manure crops are grown so that they can be ploughed back into the soil

→ Biofertilizers synthesise nutrients from the environment or from soil to plants.

→ Green leaf manure can be prepared by using any plant leaves.

→ Soil testing centres give us knowledge about the soil

→ In organic farming, farmers use natural manures and natural pest-controlling methods.

→ Humus and water holding capacity are increased in the soil by applying natural manure.

→ Friendly insects control harmful insects.

→ Over usage of insecticides, fungicides, weedicides, pesticides lead to soil pollution, water pollution and hazardous to biodiversity.

→ Food Chain: Describes the linear sequence of organisms which represent their prey-predator relationship in the ecosystem.

→ Ecology: It ¡s the scientific study ¡n which plants, animals and people are related to each other and the environment.

→ Irrigation: To supply land or crops with water.

→ Kharif Crop: Crop refers to the planting, cultivation and harvesting of any domesticated plant sown in the rainy (monsoon) season.
E.g.: Paddy, Sugarcane, Maize etc.

→ Mixed Crops: Cultivation of more than one crop in the same field.

→ Rabi Crop: Agricultural crops sown in winter and harvested in the summer season. E.g.: Wheat, barley, sesame etc.

→ Fertilizers: Substance that ¡s applied to increase soil fertility and plant growth. May be organic or inorganic.

→ Macronutrients: Nutrients required ¡n large quantities by plants.
E.g.: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium.

→ Micronutrients: Nutrients required in small quantities by plants.
E.g.: Iron, Manganese, Boron, Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum etc.

→ Crop rotation: It is the process ¡n which one crop is followed by another crop on an agricultural field.
E.g.: After cultivation of Paddy, Black gram or Groundnut has to be grown followed by paddy again.

→ Replenish: To fill something again put new supplies into something. Soil testing centre: Tests the soil and give us knowledge about the soil.

→ Soil testing centre: Tests the soil and give us knowledge about the soil.

→ Synthetic pyrethroids: Chemicals used to control pests on crops.
E. g.: Pesticides, insecticides.

→ Biofertilizers: Fertilizers synthesized by microorganisms from the environment or from soil to plants.

→ Indigenous: Native, not foreign.

→ Insecticides: Chemicals used to kill insects.

→ Fungicides: Chemicals used to kill fungi.

→ Weedicides: Chemicals used to kill weeds.

→ Herbicides: Chemicals used to kill herbs.

→ Predatory insects: Insects that kill and eat insects.

→ Bacteria: Unicellular microorganisms reproduce by binary fission.

→ Immunity: Resistance developed against chemicals or things or animals. Stomata: Microscopic holes present in the epidermis of the leaf, helps in transpiration.

→ Carbohydrate: It ¡s an organic compound that consists only of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. A major food source.

→ Bacterial culture: the initial step in studying morphology and identification of bacteria ¡n the disease process.

→ Mixed Crops: More than one crop ¡s cultivated ¡n the same field.

→ Organic farming: In this type of farming farmers use natural manures and natural pest-controlling methods. Crop rotation, mixed crops are also practised.

→ Vermicompost: It is the product or process of composting using worms usually earthworms.

→ Ingredients: A component part, constituent.

→ Watershed: A ridge of land that separates two adjacent river systems. A watershed is a basin-like landform defined by high points and ridgelines that descend into lower elevations and stream valleys.

→ Weeds: Other plants grow in afield along with the crop. These plants are called weeds.

→ Irrigated farming: Supplying water to land or crops is called irrigated farming.

→ Unirrigated farming: A farming that does not supply water to land or crops is called unirrigated forming.

→ Dr M.S.Swaminathan 7th August 1924:

• Dr M.S.Swaminathan is an Indian scientist doing his research in the agricultural industry.
• He is known as the fat her of the Green Revolution in India.
• He had contributed to the development high yielding varieties of wheat in India.
• From 1972 to 1979 he was director-general of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and was the minister of Agriculture from 1979 to 1980.
• He served as director-general of the International Rice Research Institute (1982-88) at Manila.
• He is the founder and chairman of the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation and striving to rid the world of hunger and poverty.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 11A National Movement: The Early Phase 1885-1919 to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 11A National Movement: The Early Phase 1885-1919

→ The National Movement in India forms an important epoch in history.

→ With the growth of English education during the late nineteenth century in some major cities, a new consciousness began to develop.

→ In 1866, Dadabhai Naoroji organized the “East India Association” in London to discuss the Indian question.

→ All the provincial nationalistic intellectuals came together in the first session of the Indian National Congress at Bombay in December 1885.

→ Moderates adopted a policy of pray, petition, and protest.

→ With the start of the Swadeshi movement around 1903, the Indian National Congress movement took a major leap forward.

→ The Swadeshi movement gave tremendous impetus to Indian history, particularly the textile industry of India.

→ Bal Gangadhar Tilak gave the famous slogan, “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it.”

→ There was a split in the Congress in the 1907 Surat session.

→ Tilak joined his hands with Annie Besant to launch a movement for ‘Home Rule’.

→ The two factions of the Congress united again in 1916 through the Lucknow pact.

→ Mahatma Gandhi came back from South Africa and joined the Indian freedom movement.

→ Sovereign: Having authority on self (on a country or a person or a race)

→ Racial discrimination: The discrimination showed by the Europeans especially the British towards other races. e.g.: Blacks & Whites.

→ Resolution: A decision which is taken in a meeting or self.

→ Moderates: The freedom fighters who followed a policy of petition, pray, and protest.

→ Petitions: Requisitions to the government or higher authorities to fulfill some wants

→ Swadeshi: Which are not belonged to foreign

→ Boycott: Refuse to deal with a person, organization, or country as punishment or a protest.

→ Picketing: A group of people positioned outside a workplace with the aim of persuading other people not to work during a strike.

→ Swaraj: Full-fledged freedom

→ Protest: Show disagreement

→ Extremism: A policy followed by some freedom fighters like Tilak etc., to achieve freedom in extreme ways.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 10 Landlords and Tenants under the British and the Nizam to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 10 Landlords and Tenants under the British and the Nizam

→ During the time of the Mughal emperors, on their behalf them, the zamindars collected land revenue from the peasants.

→ Khudkhasht lands are lands of zamindars on which the laborers worked.

→ The English East India Company introduced the Permanent Settlement in 1793 when Cornwallis was the Governor-General.

→ By 1820, the prices of grains in the market rose and cultivation slowly expanded.

→ The zamindars did not have an interest in improving the land.

→ Nizam handed over Rayalaseema to the British on account of debt.

→ Some British administrators believed that it was the duty of the government to invest in large-scale irrigation works.

→ Even in the Ryotwari areas, the land revenue was fixed at a very high level.

→ Peasants very often borrowed money from moneylenders in order to pay their land revenue.

→ During the colonial period, the peasants were forced to do ‘Vetti’ on the personal land of the landlords.

→ The zamindars also tried to extract as much money as they could from the peasants under a variety of pretexts.

→ In the Hyderabad State under the Nizam rule, there were many forms of subordinate chieftaincies.

→ The large landlords were called Doras.

→ Famines or massive food shortages leading to acute distress were a regular feature of British rule. Not less than 11 famines occurred during the latter half of the 19th century.

→ The famous peasant movements were the Deccan riots of the 1860s, Rampa features, and Mappila agitations.

→ Landlords: Zamindars gave their land to peasants either for a share of the products or for a fixed rent. These peasants were called Landlords.

→ Moneylenders: Persons who lend money on interest to the needy (on the mortgage)

→ Jagirs: These are the areas of Jagirdars, Subordinate Chieftaincies in the Hyderabad State under Nizam rule.

→ Santhanam: Some areas were ruled by Swadeshi rulers under British rule.

→ Inamdar’s: The people who received ‘Inams’ from Nizam in the form of land.
→ Patta: A paper order which declares the ownership of land.

→ Ryotwari: Ryotwari means peasant tenure.

→ Deshmukh: The person who collects revenue in Hyderabad State during Nizam’s rule.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 7 Animal Behaviour to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 7 Animal Behaviour

→ Animal behaviour is influenced by many factors.

→ Animal behaviour is the scientific study of the wild and wonderful ways in which animals interact with each other, with other living beings, and with the environment

→ Both external and internal stimuli prompt behaviours.

→ Animal behaviour is studied as instinct, imprinting, conditioning and imitation.

→ Instinctual behaviours are inborn behaviours that need not be learned.

→ Making nests by birds, choose mates and forming groups for protection etc., are examples of instinctive behaviour.

→ Chickens and ducklings recognise their mother because of a behaviour type called imprinting.

→ Conditioning is a type of behaviour involving a response to a stimulus that is different from the natural one.

→ Ivan Pavlov conducted experiments on conditioning.

→ Imitation is a type of behaviour where one animal copies another animal.

→ Human behaviour is more complex because we are more intelligent and aware of ourselves.

→ Tagging help scientists follow the journeys the animals make.

→ Identifying or smelling the ability of dogs and searching and communicating the nature of ants is because of pheromones.

→ Beaver, a mammal, which lives in North America builds dams across water streams,

→ Dolphins have great logical thinking power.

→ In 1977 Ervin Pepperberg made learned more than 100 words to Alex, the grey parrot

→ Some animals spray bad smells through their body to protect from predators. e.g.:Tasmanian devil.

→ The scientific study of animal behaviour is called Ethology.

→ Instinct: This type of behaviour need not be learned. They are present from birth.

→ Reflex: These are also a type of instinctive behaviour. We do not have to learn this.

→ Imprinting: It is a type of behaviour. Recognition of mother by chickens and ducklings after they are hatched from the eggs.

→ Conditioning: It ¡s a type of behaviour involving a response to a stimulus that is different from the natural one. It ¡s a type of learned behaviour.

→ limitation: It ¡s a type of behaviour where one animal copies another animal.

→ Creativity: Make a new thing.

→ Ethology: It is the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour.

→ Primates: The group of mammals that includes humans and monkeys.

→ Konrad Lorenz (1903 to 1989) was an Austrian scientist who studied animal behaviour. He discovered that if he reared geese (give the local name of this) since they hatched; they became imprinted on him. They followed him around and preferred to be near him even when they had grown into adult geese.

→ Some animals spray bad smells through their body to protect from predators. The Tasmanian Devil is the worst smelling animal in the animal kingdom. We are also familiar with a beetle with a foul smell called Bombardier Beetle.

It has two chemicals hydroquinone and hydrogen peroxide stored in its body. Whenever the beetle feels threatened, these chemicals mix with some special enzymes and that heat up the liquids, which gives out a bad smell from its body.

→ Konrad Lorenz (1903 – 1989):

• Konrad Lorenz was an Austrian zoologist, ethologist and ornithologist
• He is often regarded as one of the founders of modern ethology.
• He discovered that if he reared geese since they hatch they became imprinted on him.
• They followed him around and preferred to be near him even when they had grown into adult geese.
• Konrad Lorenzsha red the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Nikolas Tin bergen and Ka rl von Frisch.

Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 8 Chemical Bonding to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 8 Chemical Bonding

→ A chemical bond is an attractive force between two atoms in a molecule.

→ Atoms which contain 8 electrons in the outermost shell are stable and less reactive.

→ Electron transfer occurs from one atom to another because atoms try to acquire an inert gas configuration.

→ Ions are charged particles.

→ The atom which loses electron acquire positive charge and the atoms gain electrons acquire a negative charge.

→ The formation of ionic compounds involves the formation of ions and the attraction of ion pairs.

→ Oxidation involves the removal of electrons.

→ Reduction involves the addition of electrons.

→ Oxidation and reduction go side by side.

→ The compounds containing molecules that are formed by sharing of electrons are known as covalent compounds.

→ Covalent compounds are soft with low melting and boiling points.

→ Molecules having two oppositely charged poles are called polar molecules.

→ Vander Waal’s forces are purely electrostatic forces operating between molecules at a short distance.

→ A dipolar molecule attracting announcer dipolar molecule is called dipole-dipole attraction.

→ A strong bond is formed by the maximum overlap of orbitals.

→ End-end overlap of orbitals leads to the formation of sigma (σ) bond and part overlap of orbitals leads to the formation of pi (π) bond.

→ a bond is stronger than an π bond.

→ σ (Sigma) bond exists independently.

→ π bond has no independent existence. It exists only in the presence of a sigma bond.

→ In a double bond one, a and one π bond are present.

→ In a triple bond, one d and two π bonds are present.

→ s – s overlap is present in H₂.

→ p – p overlap is present in F₂, Cl₂, Br_2, and I₂.

→ s – p overlap is present in HF, HC/, HBr, and HI.

→ Molecules having single bonds have only o bonds.

→ Molecules having a single bond are H₂, F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂, BeCl₂, etc.

→ Molecules having double bonds are O₂, C₂H₄, CO₂, etc.

→ C₂H₂, IM₂, HCN, CaC₂, etc. have triple bonds.

→ The number of valence electrons available in the atoms decides the type of bond.

→ To explain the bond angles in the molecules through covalent bonds the Valence – Shell – Electron – Pair – Repulsion – Theory (VSEPR).

→ VSEPR was proposed by Sidgwickand Powell (1940). It was further improved by Gillespie and Nyholm (1957).

→ Electrons: Elementary particles in an atom with a negative charge.

→ Noble gases: A group of monoatomic gaseous elements forming group ‘O’ of the periodic table.

→ Lewis dot structure: The valence electrons in the atom of an element are depicted in a short form by Lewis symbol or Lewis dot structure.

→ Octet rule: A stable group of eight electrons in the outer shell of an atom is called the octet rule.

→ Chemical bond: The force of attraction between any two atoms or a group of atoms that results in a stable entity is called a chemical bond.

→ Ionic bond: The electrostatic attraction force that keeps cation and anion together to form a new electrically neutral compound is called ‘Ionic bond’.

→ Covalent bond: The chemical bond formed between two atoms by mutual sharing of a pair of valence shell electrons so that both of them can attain octet or duplet in their valence shell is called the covalent bond.

→ Cation: It is a positively charged ion formed by the removal of an electron from an atom.

→ Anion: It is a negatively charged ion formed by the addition of an electron to the atom.

→ Electrostatic force: Force of attraction between positively charged and negatively charged bodies or ions is called electrostatic force.

→ Electrovalent: The valence concept has been explained in terms of electrons. It is also called electrovalent.

→ Polar solvent: Polar solvents are the compounds such as water and liquid ammonia which have dipole moments and consequently high dielectric constants. The solvents are capable of dissolving ionic compounds or covalent compounds that ionize.

→ Non-polar solvent: Non-polar solvents are compounds such ethane and benzene, which do not have dipole moments. These do not dissolve in but will dissolve nonpolar covalent compounds

→ Formation of molecules: Atoms combine and form molecules. This is called the formation of molecules.

→ Ionic compounds: The compounds formed by the ionic bonds are called compounds.

→ Covalent compounds: The compounds formed by the covalent bonds are covalent compounds.

→ Electropositive character: The ability to lose electrons and become a positively charged ion of an atom is called the electropositive character.

→ Electronegative character: The tendency of an atom to gain electrons and become a negative ion.

→ Polar bonds: These are formed due to unequal sharing of electrons by the combining atoms.

→ Bonded pair of electrons: Electrons which arranged by atoms to share and form a bond is called bonded pair of electrons.

→ Lone pair: Unshared electron pair or non-bonding electron pair.

→ Bond length: Bond length or bond distance is the equilibrium distance between the nuclei of two atoms that form a covalent bond.

→ Bond energy: An amount of energy associated with a bond in a chemical compound.

→ The shape of the molecules: While atoms combine and form molecules they should have some shape. They are called the shape of the molecules.

→ Linear: A molecule in which the atoms are in a straight line as in carbon dioxide O = C = O.

→ Tetrahedral: Having four faces.

→ Properties of Ionic and: Formula mass, physical appearance, type of bond, covalent compounds melting point, boiling point, solubility, etc.

→ Configuration: The arrangement of electrons around the nudes in an atom.

→ Oxidation: The process in which an atom, ion, or molecule loses electrons.

→ Conductivity: Covalent compounds are poor conductors of electricity due to rigid bonding.

→ Van der Waal forces: Van der Waal forces are purely electrostatic forces operating between molecules at a short distance.

→ Dipole – dIpole forces: A dipolar molecule attracting another dipolar molecule.

→ Banana bond: Informal name for the type of electron-deficient bond holding the B – H – B bridges in boranes and similar compounds.

→ Bivalent or divalent: Having a valency of two.

→ Bisulfate: Hydrogen sulfate.

→ Alkali: A base that dissolves in water to give hydroxide ions.

→ Atom: The smallest part of an element that can exist chemically.

→ Single bond: Covalent bonds in which one pair of electrons is shared are known as covalent ‘single bond’.

→ Double bond: Covalent bonds in which two pairs of electrons are shared are known as covalent ‘double bonds’.

→ Triple bond: Covalent bonds in which three pairs of electrons are shared are known as covalent ‘triple bonds’.

→ Compound: A substance formed by the combination of elements in fixed proportions.

→ Dissociation: The breakdown of a molecule, ion, etc. into smaller molecules, ions, etc.

→ Electronegativity: It is the ability of the bonded atom to attract the electron density of the shared electrons.

→ Count Alessandro Volta (1745 – 1827):

• Volta was born in Como, Italy to a noble family.
• He made discoveries In electrostatic, meteorology, and pneumatics.
• His most famous invention, however, is the first battery (cell).
• Volta’s battery was later refined by other scientists and the French emperor, Nepolean, made volta a TMCount” for his discovery.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 9 Public Health and the Government to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 9 Public Health and the Government

→ In order to prevent and treat illnesses, we need appropriate facilities.

→ India has a large number of doctors, clinics and hospitals.

→ India is the 4th largest producer of medicines in the world and is also a large exporter of medicines.

→ The public health service is a system of health centres and hospitals run by the government to provide treatment to all kinds of problems.

→ There is a wide range of private health facilities that exist in our country.

→ Registered Medical Practitioners (RMPs) work in rural areas.

→ Medicines are too expensive for some chronic diseases to the public. So many insurance companies are present in the market.

→ Water is essential for life and good health.

→ Health care, sanitation, electricity etc., are known as public facilities.

→ Government is responsible for providing these to people.

→ Adequate food, safe drinking water, proper sanitation and preventive measures are basic to a healthy living environment.

→ Public Health: Health centres, hospitals run by the government are called Public Centres Health Centres.

→ Area Hospital: The hospital has 100 beds at the division level.

→ Public amenities: Like water, there are other essential facilities that need to be provided for everyone. Health care, sanitation, electricity, public transport etc. These are called public amenities.

→ Nutrition: All of us require some fat in our body to remain healthy to provide the source of energy for our activities to protect ourselves from infections. This is called nutrition.

→ Aarogyasri Scheme: This scheme is available to all the persons who hold white cards. They are eligible for free treatment in private hospitals also.

→ Primary Health: These are located at the mandate levels. The PHC covers a Centres population of 30,000 (roughly five Sub Centre areas).

→ Anganwadi centres: Education and health centres for children from 3 to 5 years.

→ Resistance power: Our body has some power of resisting harmful bacteria.

→ Asha: A government health worker at the village level.

Students can go through AP State Board 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 6 Sense Organs to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 9th Class Biology Notes Chapter 6 Sense Organs

→ The eye, nose, ear, tongue and skin are the five sensory organs in human beings.

→ Stimuli from the environment around are received by the body through sense organs.

→ All sense organs work together for a particular sensation.

→ There is a particular level at which the process of sensation is triggered

→ The brain is the centre of all sensitive activities.

→ The brain receives information from sense organs through sensory nerves and after interpretation sends signals to the parts through motor nerves.

→ Aristotle and Plato mentioned the five senses of humans. Touch was the most important

→ Eyelids, eyelashes, eyebrows, lachrymal glands, eyeballs, conjunctiva are some of the parts of an eye.

→ The eye is covered by three layers called the sclerotic layer or sclera, choroid layer and retina.

→ The biconvex lens is present immediately behind the pupil

→ Lens divides the inner eyeball into an aqueous chamber and a vitreous chamber.

→ The retina contains rods for near dark vision while cones help in bright colour light, vision.

→ Blindspot is the area of no vision where the optic nerve leaves the eye.

→ Fovea or yellow spot is the area of best vision.

→ The eye forms an image in the retina.

→ The lens turns the image left to right and upside down.

→ In nearsightedness or Myopia images are formed in front of the retina.

→ In farsightedness or Hypermetropia, images are formed behind the retina.

→ Lachrymal glands secrete tears for lubrication and also prevent dehydration of various mucus membranes.

→ Ms patterns are different for different individuals and can be used for identification.

→ The main diseases and defects of the eye are night blindness, xeropthalmia, myopia (near sightedness], Hypermetropia (farsightedness], glaucoma, cataract and colour blindness.

→ Ear helps in hearing and in maintaining the equilibrium of our body.

→ The ear has three parts: external ear or pinna, middle ear and internal ear.

→ Ceruminous and sebaceous are present in the external ear to keep the ear canal lubricated

→ The tympanum or eardrum is present at the end of the ear canal or Auditory Meatus.

→ The chain of three bones malleus, incus and stapes are present in the middle ear which helps in amplifying sound

→ The internal ear consists of a bony labyrinth enclosing the membranous labyrinth.

→ Olfactory receptors or smell receptors are present in the mucus membrane of the nasal cavity.

→ 10 thousand taste buds are located in the walls of the papillae of the tongue.

→ Umami is one of the five basic tastes together with sweet, sour, bitter and salty.

→ On the tongue, a specialised nerve hotline carries nothing but taste messages to specialised regions of the brain.

→ The skin has cutaneous receptors for touch.

→ Skin is the largest organ of human beings contains the outer epidermis and the inner dermis.

→ Sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles, blood vessels and fats are present in the dermis of the skin.

→ Sense organs are the gateway of knowledge.

→ The visually impaired students can read the Braille script merely by touching.

→ The impression of an eye image stays in the retina for about 1/16 of a second

→ Sensory receptors: Receptors present in sense organs that respond to a stimulus in the external or internal environment of an organism.

→ Lachrymal glands: Present in eye. They secrete lubricant for the eye aiding in the movement of the eye.

→ Stimulus: Something external that influences an activity.

→ Conjunctiva: It ¡s the layer that covers the front portion of the eye.

→ Sclera: One of the three layers that cover the eye. It is the outermost thick, tough, fibrous, non – elastic and white coloured layer.

→ Iris: It ¡s the part formed by the choroid layer around the pupil.

→ Cornea:

• It is the part that is formed due to the bulging of the sclera.
• It is the clear window in the sclera in front of the iris.
• The transparent protective covering is on the outer surface of the eye.

→ Pupil: The small black round area in the middle of the eye.

→ Choroid layer: It ¡s the second layer that covers the eye. It is black ¡n colour and contains a lot of blood vessels.

→ Pinna: External ear; visible part of the ear on either side of our head.

→ Ceruminous glands: Wax producing glands ¡n the pinna.

→ Sebaceous glands: Oil-producing glands ¡n the pinna. Helps ¡n lubricating cheer canal (or) Glands present ¡n inner layer of skin i.e., the dermis. It secretes oil.

→ Auditory meatus: The canal in the ear.

→ Malleus: The first bone of the three bones present in the middle ear.

→ Incus: The second bone of the three bones present in the middle ear.

→ Stapes: The last one of the three bones present in the middle ear. All these three bones amplify vibrations received on the tympanum membrane.

→ Tympanum: Also called the eardrum. A thin layer is present at the end of the auditory meatus.

→ Vestibule: It is the first part of the membranous labyrinth present in the internal ear.

→ Vestibular nerves: Nerve fibres from vestibule forms vestibular nerve.

→ SnlIunar canals: It is the second part of the membranous labyrinth present in the internal ear connected with the vestibule and filled with endolymph.

→ Cochlea: It ¡s the third part of the membranous labyrinth. It is spiral-shaped.

→ Basilar membrane: Membrane that separates semi-lunar canals and cochlea.

→ Vestibular membrane: It separates vestibule and semilunar canals.

→ Cochlear nerve: Cochlear nerve fibres from the cochlear nerve.

→ Auditory nerve: It is formed by the union of vestibular and cochlear nenes.

→ Suspensory ligaments: Biconvex lens ¡s present behind the pupil and is attached to suspensory ligaments.

→ Vitreous chamber: It is the part of the inner ball divided by a lens. It is filled with jelly-like fluid.

→ Aqueous chamber: It is another part of the inner ball divided by a lens. It is filled with water like fluid.

→ Suspensory ligaments: Biconvex lens is present behind the pupil and is attached to suspensory ligaments.

→ Vitreous chamber: It is the part of the inner ball divided by a lens. It is filled with jelly-like fluid.

→ Aqueous chamber: It is another part of the inner ball divided by a lens. It is filled with water like fluid.

→ Retina: Image formation site in eye. It contains cells called rods and cones. Yellow spots and blind spots are present in it.

→ Blindspot: The area of no vision In Retina

→ Fovea or Macula or yellow spot: The area of the best vision in the Retina.

→ Optic nerve: It ¡s formed by the nerve cells bundled together. It transports visual information from the eye to the brain.

→ Night blindness: Type of eye disease. The person cannot see the objects in dim light and in the night.

→ Myopia: Also called nearsightedness. Images are formed in front of the retina. Type of eye disease. Can’t see objects at a distance.

→ Hypermetropia: Also called farsightedness type of eye disease. mages are formed behind the retina. Cannot see near objects properly.

→ Cataract: Type of eye disease. A thin layer is formed over the conjunctiva. The lens becomes white instead of clear.

→ Colour blindness: Type of eye disease. Unable to see the difference between all or some colours.

→ Chemoreceptors: These are specialised nerve cells designed to respond to chemical stimuli.

→ Foliate papillae: These are the bump-like structures present on the sides of the tongue.

→ Filiform papillae: Small prominences or Flakes on the tongue. They are thin, ‘V’ shaped but do not contain taste buds. Numerous in number not involved in gestation. Mechanical in function.

→ Olfactory sense: Sense of smell.

→ Vallarta papillae: These are dome-shaped structures on the tongue. Their number varies from eight to twelve. They get afferent taste nerves from the cranial nerve, glass pharyngeal.

→ Fungiform papillae: The roundish structures on the tongue.

→ Melanin: It Is a pigment, responsible for the colouration of the skin.

→ Cutaneous receptors: Receptors present in the skin for touch.

→ Tactile receptors: Separate Receptors for touch in the skin.

→ Pacinian receptors (Corpuscles): Receptors for pressure ¡n skin.

→ Nociceptors: Receptors for temperature in the skin.

→ Leucoderma: Disease due to the deficiency of melanin.

→ Pella gro: Disease due to the deficiency of Vitamins.

→ Umami: It is the savoury flavour found in protein-rich foods such as meat, seafood and cheese. It is one of the five basic tastes together with sweet, sour, bitter and salty.

→ While issuing identity cards like AADHAR. They take photographs of your eyes. Do you know why did they take a photo of your eye? Iris patterns are individual specific and can be used for identification just as our fingerprints.

→Each taste bud has a cavity with a pore. The pore is called the taste pore. The epithelial cells, surrounding the taste buds form taste cells or the receptors. The receptor cells and the cells supporting them are situated in the cavity. Each receptor cell connects to a nerve fibre. All the nerve fibres connect to the main nerves that carry messages to the brain and spinal cord for further processing.

→ Albertus Magnus (1193 – 1280):

• Albertus Magnus was born in Lauingen, Germany in 1193 and died on November 15, 1280, in Cologne, Germany.
• Albertus Magnus was a bishop in a church in Italy, a keen observer of nature and a lover of science.
• Albertus Magnus follows Aristotelian ideas but comments on them for the first time and making them accessible for wider academic debate.
• He mentions the role of nerves for the first time in the sensation of touch.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 8 Impact of Technology on Livelihoods to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 8 Impact of Technology on Livelihoods

→ Technology is something we see and use every day.

→ Technology is the practical application of knowledge in our everyday lives that leads to a new product or an improvement in the way something works or how something is done.

→ The steam engine changed many production processes in factories.

→ Technology is not always welcomed. People are afraid that they would lose their jobs to the machines.

→ Agriculture around the time of independence was traditional. Agricultural goods were produced mostly for self and some for the market.

→ After independence, the government began building dams and providing irrigation facilities.

→ The use of agricultural machinery also changed the production process quite considerably.

→ Tractors, Combined Harvesters began to be used.

→ Extensive farm mechanization is leading to the displacement of laborers.

→ The British introduced power loom production in India. Later they moved from large mills to small sheds.

→ Technological changes also affect service activities.

→ India’s telecommunication network is the third-largest in the world.

→ The changes in telephone technology brought down the cost of communication.

→ technology: Technology is the practical application of knowledge in our everyday lives that leads to a new product or an improvement in the way something works.

→ Invention: When the new machine or method of production is created for the first time, it is called an invention.

→ irrigation Facilities: Supplying water to the fields through different methods is called Irrigation facilities.

→ Fertilizers and Pesticides: Fertilisers are used for high yielding, Pesticides are used for killing insects in fields.

→ Agricultural Operations: Ploughing, sprouting, etc., are all agricultural operations.

→ Service Activities: All the activities that support agricultural industries and all the trading activities are called service activities.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 7 Money and Banking to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 7 Money and Banking

→ In a barter system, goods are directly exchanged for each other without the use of money.

→ If we use money, there will be no problem in exchanging commodities. Any commodity or service can be exchanged for money.

→ Over time, people preferred scarce and attractive metals as a medium of exchange.

→ Coins became the acceptable form of money by traders and people.

→ Paper money is also called Hundis. It also has its defects.

→ Banking is a business activity where money deposits are collected from the public and these deposits can be transferred from one person to another.

→ Deposits refer to the money that people keep in the bank.

→ Nowadays cheques are widely used for making payments and receiving money.

→ Banking activity is being done with computers with the internet and other electronic means of communication which is called electronic banking or internet banking.

→ Deposits are the way through which money saved by people comes into the bank.

→ Banks give loans and advances to different sections of the public.

→ Different people can obtain loans for different requirements under some rules and conditions of the bank.

→ Barter: Exchange goods or services for other goods and services

→ Forms of Money: Coins, notes, Hundis, receipts, bills, etc.

→ Deposits: Put down in a specific account.

→ Savings: A reduction in money expenditure for future purposes.

→ Loan: A sum of money that is Pent to someone.

→ Interest: Money paid for the use of money that is being lent

→ Cheque: A written order to a bank to pay a stated sum from an account to a specified person.

Students can go through AP State Board 10th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 7 Classification of Elements- The Periodic Table to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 10th Class Physical Science Notes Chapter 7 Classification of Elements- The Periodic Table

→The group of three elements in ascending order of their atomic weights in which the molecular weight of a middle element is the average of the first and third element is called a triad.

→ Elements are arranged in ascending order of their atomic weights, then every eighth element from starting element has similar properties. This is called an octave.

→ The horizontal rows and vertical columns of a periodic table are called periods and groups respectively.

→ The systematic arrangement of elements in a table in horizontal rows and vertical columns is called a periodic table.

→ Mendeleev’s periodic law: The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights.

→ Atomic weight = Equivalent weight × valency.

→ Moseley’s periodic law: The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

→ If differentiating electron enters s sub-shell, they are called s-block elements.

→ If differentiating electron enters p, d, and f shells they are called p-block, d-block, and f-block elements respectively.

→ The Group of elements is called the element family or chemical family.

→ Elements having atomic numbers 58 to 71 are called lanthanides.

→ Elements having atomic numbers 90 to 103 are called actinides.

→ Metalloids or semi-metals are elements that have properties that are intermediate between the properties of metals and non-metals.

→ Elements are classified on the basis of similarities in their properties.

→ Dobereiner grouped the elements into Triads and Newlands gave the law of octaves.

→ Modern periodic law: The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their electronic configurations.

→ Anomalous in the arrangement of elements based on increasing atomic mass could be removed when the elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic number, a fundamental property of the element discovered by Moseley.

→ Elements in the modern periodic table are arranged in 18 groups and 7 periods.

→ Elements are classified into s, p, d, f blocks depending upon which sub-shell the differentiating electron enters in the atom of the given element.

→ All the d-block elements (except the Zn group) are known as transition elements and all the f-block elements (both Lanthanides, Actinides) are known as inner transition elements.

→ Half of the distance between nuclei of two atoms in solids is called atomic size.

→ Atomic size is measured in a picometer.
1 pm = 10^-12 m.

→ Atomic radii of metals are called metallic radii.

→ The half of the distance between the two atoms in a covalent molecule is called the covalent radius.

→ The size of the positive ion is less than the neutral atom.

→ The size of the negative ion is greater than the neutral atom.

→ The energy required to remove an electron from the outermost orbit or shell of a neutral gaseous atom is called ionization energy (or) first ionization energy.

→ The energy required to remove the electron from unipositive ion is called 2nd ionization energy.

→ The electron affinity of an atom is defined as the energy liberated when an electron is added to its neutral gaseous atom.

→ The energy liberated when an electron is added to a uni-negative ion is called the 2nd electron affinity of that element.

→ The relative tendency of its atom to attract electrons towards itself when it is bounded to the atom of another element is called electronegativity of the element.

→ Triad: A group of three elements in which the atomic weight of a middle element is the average of first and third elements with similar properties.

→ Octave: When elements are arranged in the ascending order of their atomic weight, every element starting from a given element resembles in its properties to that of the starting element are called octaves.

→ Periodic Law: Law that regards the properties of elements in the periodic table.

→ Periodic table: The charts of elements arranged ¡n a systematic order of increasing order of atomic weight or atomic number is called periodic table,

→ Periods: The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods.

→ Groups: The vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups.

→ Lanthanides: Elements from ₅₈Ce to ₇₁Lu possess almost the same properties as ₅₇La. So they are called lanthanides.

→ Actinides: Elements from ₉₀Th to ₁₀₃Lr are called actinides.

→ Element family: The elements that belong to the same group in the periodic table having similar properties are called element families.

→ Metalloids: The elements which have both metallic and non-metallic properties are called metalloids.

→ Periodicity: The properties of elements in a group of a periodic table have similar properties, that is called periodicity.

→ Atomic radius: The half of distance between two nuclei in solids and half of distance between two atoms participated in a chemical bond. Simply we can give the distance between the nucleus and outermost orbital.

→ Ionization energy: The energy required to remove an electron from the outermost orbit or shell of a neutral gaseous atom is called ionization energy.

→ Electron affinity: The electron affinity of an element is the energy liberated when an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom.

→ Electronegativity: The relative tendency of the element of an atom to attract electrons towards itself when it is bonded to another atom of another element.

→ Electropositivity (or): The tendency of metals to lose electrons is called Electro- Electropositive character positive character.

→ Mendeleev’s periodic law: The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic weights.

→ Modern periodic law: The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

→ Alkali metal family: Group IA elements are called the alkali metal family.

→ Alkali earth metal family: Group lIA elements are called the alkali earth metal family.

→ Chalcogen family: The elements in group (16) form ores with elements.

→ Noble gases: The elements of the group (18) (VIII-A) which are least active.

→ Electron gain enthalpy: Electron affinity of the element is also called electron gain enthalpy.

→ Transition elements: d-block elements are called transition elements.

→ Inner transition elements: Lanthanoids and Actinoids (f block elements) are called inner transition elements.

→ Metallic radius: Half of the distance between adjacent nuclei of atoms in solid.

→ Covalent distance: Half of the distance between atoms in a covalent bond.

→ Valence (or) Valency: The combining power of elements with respect to hydrogen or oxygen.

→ Metals: The elements with three or fewer electrons in the outer shell are called metals.

→ Non-metals: The elements with five or more electrons in the outermost shell are called non-metals.

→ Pico meter: The unit of atomic size.
1 pm = 10^-12 m.

→ Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (8 Feb. 1834 – 2 Feb. 1907):

• Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev was a Russian chemist and Inventor.
• He formulated periodic law, created his own version of the periodic table of elements.
• He used the periodic table to correct the properties of some already discovered elements.
• And also predict the properties of elements yet to be discovered

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 6 Minerals and Mining to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 6 Minerals and Mining

→ Anything which we obtain naturally from under the earth is a mineral.

→ Environmentalists differentiate between two kinds of resources- renewable and non-renewable resources.

→ Andhra Pradesh is very rich in mineral resources.

→ Krishna, Godavari basin has great potential for mineral oil and gas.

→ Minerals can be taken out for use by humans through a process of mining.

→ Minerals usually occur deep in the earth.

→ A New National Mineral Policy was announced in 1993.

→ As a result, there has been a boom in mining.

→ There are extensive coal deposits in Khammam, Karimnagar, Adilabad, and Warangal. These mines are operated by Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL).

→ Mangampeta in YSR Kadapa District has one of the largest – reserves of barytes mineral in the world.

→ Andhra Pradesh Mineral Development Corporation is a Govt, company.

→ In the open mines, almost all work is done by machines.

→ Minerals: Anything which we obtain naturally from under the earth is a mineral.

→ Underground mining: Building underground tunnels to mine minerals that lie very deep is called underground mining.

→ Open-pit mining: Making a large pit and extracting minerals is called open-pit mining or open cast mining.

→ Renewable resources: Renewable resources are those which can be regenerated like wood.

→ Non-renewable resources: The resources which are not possible to regenerate.

→ Coal: It is a fuel mineral. It is called Black gold.

→ Barytes: It is a mineral that is widely used in extracting natural gas and oil.

Students can go through AP State Board 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 5 Forests: Using and Protecting Them to understand and remember the concept easily.

AP State Board Syllabus 8th Class Social Studies Notes Chapter 5 Forests: Using and Protecting Them

→ Different people use forests differently.

→ Human beings, trees, plants, grasses, animals, birds, insects, fishes, and other countless beings use forests.

→ Forests can be classified on the basis of different criteria.

→ About 64,000 sq. km of the state are declared as forest by the government.

→ Every year about 100 sq. km of forests are lost in our state.

→ Even today 60% of tribal people in our state live in forests.

→ During the last 200 years, the tribal people gradually lost their control and rights over the forest.

→ The British government restricted the traditional customary rights of the tribals and forest users by classifying forests as reserved and protected forests.

→ Joint Forest Management (J.F.M.) was introduced by the central government and it was changed to Community Forest Management (C.F.M.) in Andhra Pradesh.

→ At last Forest Rights Act was introduced in 2006 which recognized and restored the rights of tribals on forests.

→ Afforestation: The process of planting trees on an area of land in order to form a forest.

→ Deforestation: Clearing an area of trees.

→ Forest management: Forests are managed by the people who live in them.

→ Forest Rights Act: This was introduced in 2006. The rights of tribals on forests are restored again.

→ Reserve Forest: The forest in which no one could enter.

→ Forest tract: A large area of land covered with forest.

→ Tribal people: The people relating to a tribe.